MASTER 

NEGATIVE 
NO.  95-82372 


COPYRIGHT  STATEMENT 


The  copyright  law  of  the  United  States  (Title  17,  United  States  Code) 
governs  the  making  of  photocopies  or  other  reproductions  of  copyrighted 
materials  including  foreign  works  under  certain  conditions.  In  addition, 
the  United  States  extends  protection  to  foreign  works  by  means  of 
various  international  conventions,  bilateral  agreements,  and 
proclamations. 

Under  certain  conditions  specified  In  the  law,  libraries  and  archives  are 
authorized  to  furnish  a  photocopy  or  other  reproduction.  One  of  these 
specified  conditions  is  that  the  photocopy  or  reproduction  is  not  to  be 
"used  for  any  purpose  other  than  private  study,  scholarship,  or  research." 
If  a  user  makes  a  request  for,  or  later  uses,  a  photocopy  or  reproduction 
for  purposes  in  excess  of  "fair  use,"  that  user  may  be  liable  for  copyright 
infringement. 

The  Columbia  University  Libraries  reserve  the  right  to  refuse  to  accept  a 
copying  order  if,  in  Its  judgement,  fulfillment  of  the  order  would  involve 
violation  of  the  copyright  law. 


Author: 


Hutchinson,  Elsie  Lillian 


Title: 


Housefurnishings, 
kitchenware  and  laundry 

Place: 

New  York 

Date: 

1922 


irrr— ■—- "    '  -  •"rM's.rm*'-.  tv  aji.  i  j-iJH"?-'S'.r  — "'iiwjw.b.-i  ft  ■■.■a.-.»jmiiiiiwMgeacBi' rr.*  -i!i-i'-J'j»i.u.' x  -u  .^wu-'m\.  ji  mij^^r^wv 


MASTER   NEGATIVE   # 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 
PRESERVATION  DIVISION 

BIBLIOGRAPHIC  MICROFORM  TARGET 


ORIGINAL  MATERIAL  AS  FILMED  -    EXISTING  BIBLIOGRAPHIC  RECORD 


854  .^jS 
H97 


Hutchinson,  Elsie  LiUian,  1890- 

...  Hoiisofuniisliiii.i>s,  Idtcliciiware  and  laundry  cquip- 
mout,  by  E.  Lillian  itutcliinson  ...  New  York,  The  Eon- 
aid  press  company,  1922. 

xvii,  241  p.    front.,  illus.,  plates.     19i"".     (Merchandise  manual  series) 

Published  1918  as  one  of  the  Department  store  merchandise  manuals  under 
the  title  The  housefurnishings  department. 
"Books  for  referctice"  :  p.  231. 


1.  Kitchen  utensils.        I.  Title. 


Library  of  Congress 
Copyright     A  692711 


r\ 


23-2406 


HFS4()1.D52    vol.10 


RESTRICTIONS  ON  USE: 


TECHNICAL  MICROFORM  DATA 


FILM  SIZE 


:   36 


IV/M 


REDUCTION  RATIO:       /2^  ^ 


IMAGE  PLACEMENT:  lA   ^     IB     IIB 


DATE  FILMED 


:_%i^±lf£ 


INITIALS 


TRACKING  #  : 


fi\^H  0US61 


FILMED  BY  PRESERVATION  RESOURCES,  BETHLEHEM,  PA. 


.^/ 


r^/ 


a^ 


CJl 

3 
3 


Q) 
O  > 

03.0 


IS 

■^i 

N   CO 

-P^ 
en 

CT\X 

^-< 

CX)M 

o 


^] 


3 


> 

CD 

O)  o 
o  m 

(D  CD 


^  o  o 

CO 


N 


A^ 


.•v^' 


<^ 


^^- 


^.. 


^ 


^ 


1^] 


^: 


^v ,,. 


10 

O 
O 

3 
i 


t 


01 

o 

3 
3 


<^ 


> 
01 


A^^ 


'V? 


O 
O 

3 
3 


O 


KJ 


a- 


~  m 


NO 


00 


In 


^^^ 


1.0  mm 


1.5  mm 


2.0  mm 


ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 
abcclefghi(klninopqrstuvw«y2 1234567890 


ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzl234567890 


ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 

abcdefghiiklmnopqrstuvwxyz 

1234567890 


2.5  mm 


ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 

abcdefghiiklmnopqrstuvwxyz 

1234567890 


<5 


^o 


f^ 


^iy 


/-* 


# 


^V% 

'^1^ 


i^ 


4^ 


^CP 


m 

H 
9 

O 

O 

■o  m  -o 

>  Ceo 
I  TJ  ^ 

m 

o 

m 


/'*. 


o^ 


* 


t-^ 

M 

OI 

0 

3 
3 

3 
3 

I* 

is 


X  — 


5S 


r 


•^  jt 


*^VJ^  ^T^ 


^X*^'' 


5' 5'^;^:^r 


;andise 


MANUAL- 


SERIE 


i*? 


>  ■  •'..-  '^^i 


HOUSEFURNIS 


■MMM 


HUTCHINSON 


■-■>-. 


.iDZ54-.S3 


Columbia  JBnit^tnitp 

tntftfCftpof3Irtti|ark 


LIBRARY 


School  of  Business 


MERCHANDISE  MANUAL  SERIES 


First  Stamping 
Operation 


Second  Stamping 
Operation 


Third  Stamping 
Operation 


Fourth    Stamping 
Operation 


Sixth    Stamping 
Operation 


Eighth    Stamping 
Operation 


Tenth  Stamping 
Operation 


Twelfth  Stamping 
Operation 


Finished 
Funnel 


Courtesy  Aluminum  Cooking  Utensil  Co. 


Some  of  the  Operations  in  Stamping  a  Funnel 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS 

KITCHENWARE  AND  LAUNDRY  EQUIPMENT 


BY 


E.  LILLIAN  HUTCHINSON 

Fonnerly  Secretary  of  Department  Store  Education  Association 


NEW  YORK 
THE  RONALD  PRESS  COMPANY 

1922 


^ 


1^ 


JjU<l  <A 


Copyright,  1918,  hy 
The  Ronald  Press  Compaht 


Copyright,  1922,  by 

The  Ronald  Press  Company 

AU  rights  reserved 

H^7 


WJ^isi  S^txitii  isi  Sebicateli 

to  Mrs.  Henry  Ollesheimer,  Miss 
Virginia  Potter,  and  Miss  Anne 
Morgan,  who  desiring  to  give 
greater  opportunity  for  advance- 
ment to  commercial  employees  and 
believing  that  all  business  efficiency 
muse  rest  upon  a  solid  foundation 
of  training  and  education  gave 
years  of  enthusiastic  service  to  the 
testing  of  this  belief. 


J 


i 


MERCHANDISE   MANUAL  SERIES 

EDITOR  OF   SERIES 

BEULAH  ELFRETH  KENNARD,  M.A. 

Formerly  Director  of  Department  Store  Courses,  New  York 

University;  Chairman  of  Committee  on  Merchandise  Courses 

for  New  York  City  Public  Schools;    Educational   Director, 

Department  Store  Education  Association 


CONSULTING  EDITOR 

LEE  GALLOWAY,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Commerce  and  Industry,  Head  of  Department 
of  Management,  and  formerly  Director  of  Trainin?  School 
for  Teachers  of  Retail  Selling.  New  York  University  • 
formerly    Educational    Director,  the    National   Commercial 

Gas  Association 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE 


As  "Department  Store  Merchandise  Manuals"  these 
books  were  originally  written  for  salespeople  and  were 
designed  to  give  them  reliable  information  concerning 
the  sources  and  manufacturing  processes  of  the  mer- 
chandise which  they  handle.  When  it  was  necessary 
to  deal  with  scientific  or  historical  material  it  was 
treated  as  simply  and  concretely  as  possible  and  the 
point  of  view  taken  was  that  of  business  rather  than 
that  of  the  school  or  laboratory.  In  this  form  they 
have  proved  their  practical  value  not  only  to  the  de- 
partment store  salesperson  but  in  the  specialty  shop. 
It  has  been  pointed  out,  however,  that  the  material  has 
a  wider  scope  than  that  of  sales  manuals  alone. 

As  reference  books,  librarians  will  find  the  short, 
dear  statements  and  full  indexes  invaluable. 

As  an  encyclopaedia  of  merchandise  the  series  con- 
tains scientific  information  in  a  simple,  compact  form 
which  makes  it  available  for  children  and  others  to 
whom  the  subjects  treated  are  unfamiliar. 

As  textbooks  they  are  adapted  for  use  in  commercial 
schools,  high  schools,  night  schools,  settlement  classes, 
and  by  teachers  of  household  arts  and  domestic  science. 


^; 


I 


VI 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE 


As  source  books  for  practical  story-telling,  kinder- 
gartners,  primary  and  vacation  school  teachers  will 
find  in  them  an  abundance  of  interesting  material  for 
short  "true'*  stories  on  the  various  industries  and  crafts, 
the  manufacture  of  household  articles,  such  as  pins 
and  needles,  as  well  as  the  making  of  pottery, 
glass,  and  steel.  These  manuals  contain  just  the 
material  often  hunted  for  in  vain  by  teachers  and 

librarians. 

As  household  helps  and  shopping  guides  the  young 
housekeeper  will  find  the  manuals  her  best  friends  be- 
cause they  not  only  describe  the  manufacturing  pro- 
cesses but  tell  her  how  to  distinguish  well-made  articles 
of  good  materials  from  the  inferior  and  badly  made. 
They  also  tell  her  how  to  care  for  the  clothing  or 
household  goods  which  she  has  bought. 

For  salespeople  and  storekeepers  they  supply  the 
general  and  specific  information  about  their  merchan- 
dise which  is  indispensable  to  efficiency,  yet  very 
hard  to  gather  from  the  scattered  sources  upon  which 
they  now  depend. 

These  changes  should  enlarge  the  usefulness  of  the 
manuals  without  losing  any  of  their  specific  value  in 
the  field  of  salesmanship. 

We  wish  to  express  our  grateful  appreciation  to  the 
manufacturers  and  experts  who  have  given  us  such 
valuable  counsel  and  cordial  co-operation. 

Beulah  Elfreth  Kennard. 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

This  manual  treats  of  a  department  which  carries  in 
some  respects  the  most  commonplace,  although  at  the 
same  time  the  most  indispensable,  stock  of  any  depart- 
ment. Because  of  its  universal  usefulness,  this  stock 
makes  a  popular  appeal.  An  understanding  of  the  com- 
position of  the  articles  of  daily  service  in  the  household 
and  their  methods  of  manufacture,  an  appreciation  of 
correct  methods  of  use,  and  a  realization  of  the  compara- 
tive values  of  different  utensils  in  proper  housekeeping, 
are  extremely  important  to  the  salespeople  and  the  cus- 
tomers. 

The  limits  of  space  have  necessitated  the  omission  of 
the  more  specialized  parts  of  the  stock,  such  as  vacuum 
cleaners,  washing  machines,  electrical  apparatus,  mangles, 
and  hardware.  But  the  greater  part  of  the  stock  is  dis- 
cussed. 

The  author  has  gathered  most  of  the  material  with  the 
help  and  co-operation  of  manufacturers  who  have  been 
ready  and  willing  to  furnish  the  desired  information. 
Those  to  whom  thanks  are  due  are :  Mr.  G.  D.  Colbom, 
Manager  Demonstrating  Sales  Department,  Aluminum 
Cooking  Utensil  Co.,  New  Kensington,  Pa. ;  Mr.  W.  H. 
Wagner,  Wagner  Manufacturing  Co.,  Sidney,  O.  (alu- 
minum) ;  Mr.  A.  M.  Cander,  Advertising  Manager, 
National  Enameling  &  Stamping  Co.,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

vu 


^B 


^ji  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

(enameled  ware)  ;  Mr.  W.  C.  Stone,  General  Manager, 
National  Veneer  Products  Co.,  Mishawaka,  Ind. ;  The 
Alaska  Refrigerator  Co.,  Muskegon,  Mich.;  Mr.  C.  H. 
Leonard,  Grand  Rapids  Refrigerator  Co.,  Grand  Rapids, 
Mich.;  The  Toledo  Cooker  Company,  Toledo,  O.;  Mr. 
John  S.  North,  North  Bros.  Manufacturing  Co.,  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.  (ice  cream  freezers)  ;  Auto  Vacuum  Freezer 
Co.,  New  York  City ;  Charles  Zinn  &  Co.,  New  York 
City  (baskets) ;  and  for  reading  several  of  the  chapters, 
Mrs.  E.  H.  Mays,  formerly  instructor  of  Domestic  Sci- 
ence, Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and  for  other  in- 
formation, Mr.  Charles  B.  Rosengren,  Associate  Editor, 
House  furnishing  Review.  . 

For  illustrations  thanks  are  due  to  The  Aluminum 
Cooking  Utensil  Co.,  The  Grand  Rapids  Refrigerator  Co., 
The  Alaska  Refrigerator  Co.,  The  Toledo  Cooker  Co 
The  Norman  W.  Henley  Publishing  Co.,  The  New  York 
State  College  of  Agriculture,  and  the  National  Biscuit 

Co. 

E.  Lillian  Hutchinson. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

I     The  Housefurnishings  Department 

Attractiveness  of  the  Department 
Special  Attractions  to  the  Salesperson 
Divisions 


PAGB 
I 


PART  I  — MATERIALS  AND  MANUFACTURE 

II    Iron  and  Steel  Ware 4 

Extent  of  Use 

Forms  in  Which  Iron  and  Steel  Appear 

Articles  Made  of  Each  Form  of  Iron 

Process  of  Manufacture  of  Iron  —  The  Ore 

Blast  Furnace 

Casting 

Finishing 

Characteristics  of  Cast  Iron  Ware 

Care  of  Cast  Iron  Ware 

Wrought  Iron 

Steel 

Methods  of  Making  Steel 

Bessemer  Process 

Open  Hearth  Process 

Cementation  Process 

Electric  Furnaces 

Properties  of  Steel 

Annealing 

Hardening 

Tempering 

Russia  Iron 

Coated  Ware 

Making  the  Foundation 

Kinds  of  Dies 

Cutting  Dies 

Bending  and  Forming  Dies 

Perforating  Dies 

iz 


X 

CHAPTER 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 


■i  s 


ii 


Curling  and  Wiring  Dies 
Drawing  Dies 
Successful  Drawing 

III    Enameled  Ware •    ^7 

Popularity 

Variety  of  Stock 

Composition  of  Enameled  Ware 

Composition  of  Enamel 

Preparation  of  Enamel 

Grinding  of  Enamel  ,       .       .     /*    j.-  ^ 

Preparation  of  the  Foundation  for  the  Coating 

Application  of  Enamel  to  the  Article 

Fusing 

Finishing  ^  ^  ,,^ 

Varieties  of  Enameled  Ware 
Care  of  Enameled  Ware 

Summary  of  Selling  Points  of  Enameled  Ware 

IV    Tinned,  Japanned,  and  Galvanized  Ware    36 

Definitions 

Tinned  Ware  Stock 

Manufacture  of  Tinned  Ware 

Care  of  Tinned  Ware 

History  of  Tinned  Ware 

Wire  Goods 

Wire  Drawing 

Japanned  Ware 

Galvanized  Iron  .     .  t 

Manufacture  of  Galvanized  Iron 

Care  of  Galvanized  Ware 


V    Aluminum  Ware       ...«.• 

Popularity 

Attractiveness 

Lightness 

Durability 

Economy  . 

Occurrence  of  Aluminum  . 

Processes  of  Obtaining  Pure  Aluminum 

Two  Varieties  of  Aluminum  Ware 

Casting 


..    44 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER 

Stamping 

Polishing  and  Finishing 

Care 

History 

Summary  of  Selling  Points 

VI    Woodenware , 

Articles 

Character  of  Wood 

Hardness 

Strength 

Toughness 

Stiffness 

Shrinkage 

Lumber  Used  in  Kitchen  Utensils 

Ash 

Basswood 

Beech 

Birch 

Cottonwood 

Cypress 

Hickory 

Maple 

Oak 

Pine 

Poplar 

Spruce 

Wood-Working 

Turning 

Finishing 

Joints 

Gluing 

Finishes 

Stains 

Varnish 

Paints 

Care  of  Woodenware 

VII    Earthenware  and  Glassware 

Varieties  of  Pottery 
Earthenware  Articles 
Characteristics  of  the  Ware 


XI 

PAGE 


.•I 


S3 


71 


Xll 
CHAPTER 


I 


VIII 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Materials  of  Which  It  Is  Made 

Molding 

Baking  or  Firing 

Glazing 

History  of  Pottery 

Glassware  Articles 

Preparation  of  Glass 

Merits  of  Glassware 

Comparison  of  Materials  for  Cooking 
Utensils 77 

Essentials  for  Cooking  Utensils 

Safety 

Ease  of  Cleaning 

Economy  of  Fuel 

Durability 


fl* 


PART  II  -  COOKING  AND  CLEANING 

IMPLEMENTS 

IX    Utensils  for  Cooking f^ 

Knowledge  of  the  Elements  of  Cookery  Essential 

Broiling 

Utensils  for  Broiling 

Roasting  and  Baking 

Roasting 

Utensils  for  Roasting 

Baking 

Utensils  for  Baking 

Boiling 

StewinfiT 

Utensils  for  Boiling  and  Stewing 

Braising  . 

Utensils  for  Braising 

Steaming 

Utensils  for  Steaming 

Frying 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 


xm 

PAGE 


Sauteing 

Fats 

Utensils  for  Frying  and  Sauteing 

X    Implements  for  Mixing  and  Preparing 

Food io6 

Stock 

Implements  for  Chopping,  Cutting,  Grinding 

Implements  for  Stirring,  Beating,  Pressing, 

Rolling 
Implements  for  Straining  and  Separating 
Implements  for  Measuring 
Tables  of  Weights  and  Measures 
Utensils  for  Containing  Food 

XI    Cleaning  Implements 122 

Articles 

Brooms 

Brushes 

Mops 

Cleaning  Goths 

Dust-Pans 

Carpet- Sweepers 

Carpet-Beaters 

Scouring,  Cleaning,  and  Polishing  Materiab 

Pails  and  Buckets 

Ash  Cans 

Garbage  Cans 

Oil  Cans 

Miscellaneous  Accessories 


XII    Laundry  Equipment 

Divisions 

Washboards  or  Rubbing  Boards 

Laundry  Tubs 

Clothes  Washers 

Wringers 

Boilers 

Clothes  Baskets  and  Hampers 

Clothes  Lines 

Clothes- Pins 

Irons 


134 


I 


XIV 


CHAPTER 


XIII 


CONTENTS 


Ironing  Boards 
Clothes  Horses 
Curtain  Stretchers 

Implements  for  the  Sink 

Stock 

Dishpans 

Draining  Pans 

Dish  Mops  and  Goths 

Pot  Cleaners 

Soap  Dishes  and  Shakers 

Wash  Basins 

Sink  Strainers 

Sink  Brushes  and  Shovels 


PAGE 


CHAPTER 


145 


XVI 


PART  III  —  SPECIAL  ARTICLES 


XIV  Refrigerators 

Principle  of  Refrigeration 

Styles 

Ice  Chests 

Circulation  of  Air  Currents 

Placing  of  Foods 

Insulation 

Frames 

Material  of  Outer  Cases 

Construction  of  Case 

Ice  Chamber 

Provision  Chambers 

Shelves  and  Trimmings 

Traps 

Refrigerator  Pans 

Care 

Selling  Suggestions 

Summary  of  Selling  Points 

Iceless  Refrigerators 

XV  Ice-Cream  Freezers  . 

Varieties 

Freezers  Operated  by  Crank 

Crankless  Freezers 


149 


163 


CONTENTS 


Ice  Chippers 

Principles  of  Freezing 

Directions  for  Use 

The  Appeal  of  Ice-Cream 

History 

Summary  of  Selling  Points 


XV 

PAGI 


171 


Fireless  Cookers 

Increasing  Popularity  of  the  Fireless  Cooker 

Principle  of  Fireless  Cooking 

Primitive  Fireless  Cookers 

Parts 

Case 

Insulation 

Radiators 

Cooking  Vessels 

Methods  of  Cooking 

Suggestions  for  Fireless  Cooking 

Advantages 

Suggestions  as  to  Care 

XVII    Kitchen  Tables 180 

Working  Tables 

Tops 

Frames 

Height  of  Working  Surfaces 

Care  of  Tables 

XVIII    Baskets .  184 

Varieties 

Materials 

Basket-Making 

Making  Vulcanized  Fiber  Baskets 

History 


\i 


PART  IV  — THE  SELLING  OF 
HOUSEFURNISHINGS 

XIX    The  Selection  of  an  Equipment 

Considerations 

Customer's  Manner  of  Living 


190 


xvi  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER 

Size  of  Family 

The  Bride's  Outfit 

Standard  Equipment 

The  Lightest  of  All  Outfits 

Fuel-Saving  Equipment 

Time-Saving  and  Labor-Saving  Equipment 

Construction 

Handles 

Covers 

Lips 

Ease  of  Cleaning 

Size  and  Shape 

XX    History  of  Cooking  Utensils  .     .     . 

Primitive  Cookery 

Early  Records 

The  Next  Step  in  Utensils 

Cooking  Over  the  Open  Fire 

The  Introduction  of  the  Stove 

Influence  of  Machinery 

XXI    Suggestions  to  Salespeople     . 

Arrangement,  Display,  and  Care  of  Stock 
Knowledge  of  Goods 


PAGE 


.   206 


.   214 


XXII 


Suggestions  to 
The    Necessity 


Customers 217 

for    Information    Concerning 

Household  Articles 
Knowledge  of  Individual  Needs 
Knowledge  of  Time-Saving  and  Labor-Savmg 

Devices 
Knowledge  of  Cost-Reducing  Appliances 
Maintainmg  a  Satisfactory  Equipment 

XXIII  Classification   of   Stock   of  a   Typical 

HOUSEFURNISHINGS   DEPARTMENT     .      .      .   221 


Appendix     .... 

Books  for  Reference 


231 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Some  of  the  Operations  in  Stamping  a  Funnel    Frontispiece 

FIGURE  \  PAGE 

1.  Blast  Furnace  and  Pig  Beds  .     .     .     (facing  page)  8 

2.  "  Blanks "  of  Various  Kitchen  Utensils 20,  21 

3.  Steps  in  Curling  the  Edge  of  a  Utensil 22 

4.  Operations  in  Drawing  a  Tube 25 

5.  Different    Kinds   of    Joints 65 

6.  Circulation  of  Air  in  Top-Icing  Style  of  Refrigerator  152 

7.  Layers  of  Insulation  in  the  Walls  of  a  Refrigerator 

(facing   page) 154 

8.  Cross-Section  of  a  Fireless  Cooker    .    (facing  page)  174 

9.  Various  Styles  of  Handles  Used  in  Kitchen  Uten- 

sils       (facing  page)  200 

10.  Ancient  Egyptians  Baking  Cakes  in  the  Ashes  (From 

an  Egyptian  Tomb) 208 

11.  Ancient  Greek  Cooking  Food  Over  a  Gridiron    .    .    .  210 


xvu 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS 


Chapter  I 

THE  HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

Attractiveness  of  the  Department 

The  one  word  which  best  describes  the  merchandise 
of  the  House  furnishings  Department  is  "practical." 
Utihty,  rather  than  beauty,  is  the  chief  requirement. 
Nevertheless  the  shining  rows  of  silvery  aluminum  and 
tinned  ware,  the  sanitary  whiteness  of  the  japanned  and 
enameled  ware,  the  substantial  strength  of  the  gray 
enameled  utensils,  make  a  really  artistic  appeal. 

Besides,  there  is  a  peculiar  attraction  in  the  fresh- 
ness and  newness  of  the  things  which  we  are  accus- 
tomed ordinarily  to  see  with  the  marks  of  usage  upon 
them  in  the  home. 

Special  Attractions  to  the  Salesperson 

In  department  stores  most  of  the  salespeople  in  the 
Housefumishings  Department  are   women.     As  the 


2  HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

great  majority  of  women  are  inclined  to  be  domestic, 
and  as  the  kitchen  is  the  very  center  of  the  home,  the 
stock  has  a  pecuHar  intimacy  which  the  stock  of  other 
departments  does  not  possess.  Therefore,  in  this  de- 
partment the  saleswoman  has  an  opportunity  to  com- 
bine her  ability  in  selling  with  her  knowledge  and  love 
of  home  affairs. 

Moreover,  because  courses  in  domestic  science  and 
cookery  are  given  in  most  schools  today,  the  sales- 
woman needs  to  be  particularly  well-informed  upon 
the  uses  and  characteristics  of  her  stock  so  that  she 
may  be  able  to  answer  customers'  queries  intelligently. 

Divisions 

In  the  store  the  Housefumishings  Department  is 
usually  divided  into  sections  according  to  the  materials 
of  which  the  articles  are  made,  as : 


Aluminum  ware 
Gray  enameled  ware 
Blue  enameled  ware 
White  enameled  ware 
Tinned  ware 
Japanned  ware 
Iron  and  steel  ware 


Wire  goods 
Galvanized  ware 
Woodenware 
Earthen-  and  glassware 
Cleaning  implements 
Laundry  equipment 
Special  articles 


In  this  manual.  Part  I  is  devoted  to  a  study  of  the 
various  materials,  and  then  in  Part  II  the  stock  is 


INTRODUCTORY  3 

Studied  in  a  new  grouping,  so  as  to  call  attention  to 
such  features  as  are  likely  to  be  of  particular  interest 
to  the  customer. 

According  to  purpose  the  division  therefore  is: 

Utensils  for  cooking 
Utensils  for  preparing  foods 
Cleaning  equipment 
Laundry  equipment 
Special  articles: 

Refrigerators 

Ice-cream  freezers 

Fireless  cookers 

Kitchen  tables 

Baskets 


Part  I  —  Materials  and  Manufacture 


Chapter  II 

IRON  AND  STEEL  WARE 

Extent  of  Use 

A  very  large  number  of  the  articles  of  the  House- 
furnishings  Department  are  made  entirely  or  partially 
of  iron  or  steel.  Until  recently,  iron  was  the  most 
commonly  used  material.  Although  newer  materials 
have  replaced  it  to  some  extent,  it  still  occupies  a  very 
large  place  in  the  department. 

Forms  in  Which  Iron  and  Steel  Appear 

Iron  and  steel  are  found  in  household  utensils  in 
coated  and  uncoated  form. 
Uncoated  they  appear  as : 

Cast  iron 
Wrought  iron 
Steel 

They  are  the  foundation  material  for: 

Enameled  ware 

Tinned  and  japanned  ware 

Galvanized  ware 


IRON  AND  STEEL  WARE  5 

Articles  Made  of  Each  Form  of  Iron 

Cast  iron  appears  in  parts  of  machinery,  such  as 
wheels  of  egg  beaters,  gears  of  ice-cream  freezers,  etc., 
and  in  the  following  articles : 

I.  For  the  stove: 
Teakettles 
Kettles  and  pots 
Frying  pans 
Skillets 


Griddles 
Waffle  irons 
Ham  boilers 
Flat-irons 


2.  For  the  oven : 
Dutch  ovens 
Roasting  pans 
Muffin  pans 

Wrought  iron  was  formerly  used  as  the  foundation 
of  coated  ware,  but  today  steel,  because  of  its  superior 
flexibility,  has  practically  supplanted  the  iron  for  this 
purpose.  Russia  iron  is  a  special  form  of  wrought 
iron  used  for  roasting  pans,  baking  pans,  and  drip  pans. 

Steel,  because  of  its  great  strength,  is  widely  used. 
The  best  quality  is  used  for  cutlery.  Other  articles 
made  of  uncoated  steel  are : 


I.  For  the  stove: 
Frying  pans 
Frying  kettles 
Skillets 
Griddles 


2.  For  the  oven : 
Roasting  pans 
Bread  pans 


6  HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

Process  of  Manufacture  of  Iron — ^The  Ore 

While  iron  ores  are  abundant,  iron  itself  is  never 
found  free,  but  always  in  combination  with  other  ele- 
ments. Therefore,  the  first  step  in  the  production  of 
iron  is  to  separate  it  from  the  ore,  which  is  done  in  the 
blast  furnace.  The  method  was  first  used  in  Ger- 
many in  the  fourteenth  century. 

Blast  Furnace 

The  blast  furnace  process  is  a  most  interesting  one. 
A  blast  furnace  consists  of  two  divisions : 

1.  A  tall  stack  or  chimney  lined  with  fire  brick, 

into  which  the  iron  ore,  fuel,  and  fluxing  ma- 
terial, that  is,  material  which  helps  to  melt 
the  iron  and  cause  it  to  flow,  are  dumped 
from  the  top  and  in  which  they  are  all  re- 
duced and  melted. 

2.  A  crucible  called  the  "  hearth  "  of  the  furnace 

for  collecting  the  molten  products. 

The  stack  may  be  60,  80,  or  even  100  feet  high.  It 
is  really  a  steel  shell  with  a  fire-brick  lining.  It  is  not 
a  perfect  cylinder  like  a  chimney,  but  widens  out  grad- 
ually from  the  top  to  a  point  about  two-thirds  of  the 
way  down  and  then  narrows  quickly  to  the  hearth. 
The  widest  part  is  called  the  "  bosh."  The  top  of  the 
stack  is  closed  with  a  funnel  arrangement  called  the 
"  bell  and  hopper." 


IRON  AND  STEEL  WARE  7 

The  hearth  has  straight  sides  and  various  openings, 
some  of  which  are  for  pipes  —  called  "  tuyeres" —  con- 
nected with  a  stove  which  sends  through  them  strong 
blasts  of  heated  air.  There  are  also  two  small  open- 
ings in  the  front  of  the  hearth,  one  at  the  bottom  of 
the  furnace  and  the  other  above  it  at  the  side.  When 
the  furnace  is  working  these  are  usually  stopped  with 
clay. 

On  the  outside  of  the  furnace  is  machinery  for  hoist- 
ing the  ore  and  other  materials  to  the  top  where  they 
are  dumped  in. 

The  fuel  is  coke,  a  form  of  bituminous  or  soft  coal, 
which  has  had  the  gases  and  impurities  burned  out  of 
it.     The  "  flux  "  is  limestone. 

As  the  ore,  limestone,  and  coke  fill  the  stack,  blasts 
of  hot  air  are  forced  up  from  the  bottom.  Soon  the 
intense  heat  from  the  fuel  melts  the  ore  and  limestone 
and  the  elements  separate.  The  iron  falls  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  hearth,  taking  up  some  of  the  carbon  from 
the  coke  on  its  way. 

The  lime,  alumina,  and  ash  from  the  coke  are 
lighter  than  the  molten  iron,  and  therefore  lie  on 
top  of  it  in  the  form  of  slag,  while  the  waste  gases  pass 
oflF  through  a  vertical  pipe,  or  "  downcomer." 

At  periods  averaging  six  hours  each,  the  hole  in  the 
hearth- front  on  the  level  of  the  melted  slag  is  tapped 
by  pushing  in  the  clay  stopper  opposite,  and  the  slag 
is  drawn  off  through  sand  gutters  or  into  great  pots 


f 


'iii 


I  I 


8 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


called  ladles,  and  thence  into  water  pits  where  it  is 
granulated. 

From  twenty  to  thirty  hours  after  the  furnace  is 
lighted  the  clay  stopper  in  the  lowest  hole  in  the  hearth 
is  punctured  and  a  stream  of  liquid  iron  flows  out, 
gradually  enlarging  with  the  flow. 

The  brilliant  seething  mass  runs  into  a  long  trench, 
or  gutter,  cut  in  sand,  which  has  small  side  trenches 
crossing  it  at  right  angles.  The  side  trenches  are  40 
inches  long,  4  inches  wide  and  4  inches  deep. 

The  entrances  to  the  side  trenches  or  molds  are  all 
closed  with  iron  gates  until  the  iron  has  reached  the 
bottom  one,  which  it  fills  first.  The  gates  are  then  re- 
moved from  each  in  turn  until  the  whole  series  are 
filled,  sand  is  sifted  over  the  metal,  and  water  sprayed 
upon  it  so  that  it  is  soon  hard  enough  to  be  broken 
away  from  the  channel.  The  channel  itself  is  then 
broken  up.  From  some  fancied  resemblance  the  bars 
have  always  been  called  "  pigs,"  and  the  iron  at  this 
stage  is  called  "  pig  iron." 

Figure  i  shows  a  blast  furnace  with  the  long  trench 

and  pig  beds. 

The  iron  from  many  blast  furnaces  is  no  longer  run 
into  a  "  pig  bed  "  but  into  ladles  or  pots  made  of  iron 
lined  with  firebrick.  These  pots  are  on  trucks  which 
may  be  rolled  directly  to  the  steel  mill,  and  the  contents 
subjected  to  further  treatment. 

Pig  iron  is  the  most  impure  form  of  iron,  containing 


:.    I 


11 


Figure  i.    Blast  Furnace  and  Pig  Beds 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


8 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


called  ladles,  and  thence  into  water  pits  where  it  is 
granulated. 

From  twenty  to  thirty  hours  after  the  furnace  is 
lighted  the  clay  stopper  in  the  lowest  hole  in  the  hearth 
is  punctured  and  a  stream  of  liquid  iron  flows  out, 
gradually  enlarging  with  the  flow. 

The  brilliant  seething  mass  runs  into  a  long  trench, 
or  gutter,  cut  in  sand,  which  has  small  side  trenches 
crossing  it  at  right  angles.  The  side  trenches  are  40 
inches  long,  4  inches  wide  and  4  inches  deep. 

The  entrances  to  the  side  trenches  or  molds  are  all 
closed  with  iron  gates  until  the  iron  has  reached  the 
bottom  one,  which  it  fills  first.  The  gates  are  then  re- 
moved from  each  in  turn  until  the  whole  series  are 
filled,  sand  is  sifted  over  the  metal,  and  water  sprayed 
upon  it  so  that  it  is  soon  hard  enough  to  be  broken 
away  from  the  channel.  The  channel  itself  is  then 
broken  up.  From  some  fancied  resemblance  the  bars 
have  always  been  called  "  pigs,"  and  the  iron  at  this 
stage  is  called  "  pig  iron." 

Figure  i  shows  a  blast  furnace  with  the  long  trench 

and  pig  beds. 

The  iron  from  many  blast  furnaces  is  no  longer  run 
into  a  "  pig  bed  "  but  into  ladles  or  pots  made  of  iron 
lined  with  firebrick.  These  pots  are  on  trucks  which 
may  be  rolled  directly  to  the  steel  mill,  and  the  contents 
subjected  to  further  treatment. 

Pig  iron  is  the  most  impure  form  of  iron,  containing 


Figure  i.     Blast  Furnace  and  Pig  Beds 


i 


m 


IRON  AND  STEEL  WARE  9 

about  three  parts  carbon  and  a  number  of  other  ele- 
ments in  small  quantities.  It  is  hard  and  brittle-  it 
cannot  be  hammered  nor  drawn  out  into  wire  — that 
IS,  It  IS  not  malleable  nor  ductile  — nor  can  it  be 
welded. 

For  cast  iron  it  is  remelted  and  cast  into  molds  with- 
out any  change  in  its  composition.  For  wrought  iron 
or  steel  it  must  go  through  refining  processes. 

Casting 

The  remelting  for  casting  is  done  in  a  cupola  fur- 
nace   somewhat   similar   to   the   blast    furnace,    but 
smaller.     The  pig  iron,  limestone,  and  coke  are  placed 
together    and    a    blast    of    air,    this    time    cold,    is 
forced  through  the  mass.     When  the  iron  is  thor- 
oughly fluid,  it  is  run  into  ladles,  from  which  it  is 
poured  into  sand  molds,  the  interiors  of  which  are  the 
shapes  of  the  objects  to  be  cast.     The  melted  iron  ex- 
pands and  IS  forced  into  every  part  of  the  space.     As 
the  castings  cool  they  shrink,  so  that  they  are  smaller 
than  the  molds. 

Imperfections  sometimes  occur  in  castings.  Blow 
holes  or  small  cavities  are  caused  by  dissolved  gases 
which  orm  bubbles  of  gas  that  cannot  escape.  Jarring 
the  mold  after  the  iron  is  poured  in  sometimes  produces 
imperfect  shapes.  That  is  sometimes  the  reason  why 
the  wheels  of  cast  iron  egg  beaters  or  other  pieces  of 
machinery  fail  to  work  smoothly. 


I 


lO         HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

Finishing 

When  the  cast  articles  are  removed  from  the  molds 
they  are  rough  and  must  be  polished.  For  this  pur- 
pose there  are  three  materials  which  are  generally 
used,  silica,  emery,  and  carborundum. 

SiHca  is  sand.  It  may  be  forced  by  a  sand  blast 
against  the  articles  to  be  polished,  or  they  may  be  held 
against  a  grindstone  or  an  oilstone,  which  is  a  solid 
form  of  silica. 

Emery  is  an  impure  form  of  the  mineral  corundum 
and  is  used  either  in  the  form  of  a  powder  or  pressed 
into  wheel  shape. 

The  hardest  polishing  material  is  carborimdum, 
which  is  made  from  coke  and  sand  in  the  electric  fur- 
nace.    It  is  crushed  to  a  powder  and  used  on  wheels. 

After  polishing,  the  cast  iron  article  is  ready  for 
packing  and  shipping. 

Characteristics  of  Cast  Iron  Ware 

It  will  be  noticed  that  a  very  large  number  of  the 
articles  which  are  made  of  cast  iron  are  those  which 
are  obliged  to  stand  a  high  degree  of  temperature  with- 
out melting.  Frying  kettles  are  universally  of  cast 
iron.  The  highest  cooking  temperature  is  reached  in 
frying  and  it  is  essential  that  the  utensil  be  able  to  with- 
stand this  temperature.  There  is  the  same  requirement 
in  the  case  of  griddles  and  waffle  irons. 

The  wearing  qualities  of  iron  are  very  great.    A 


IRON  AND  STEEL  WARE 


II 


muffin  pan  is  often  handed  down  from  generation  to 
generation,  and  as  it  grows  old  becomes  smoother  and 
finer. 

Many  of  the  uses  to  which  cast  iron  is  put  depend 
upon  the  great  weight  of  the  article.  For  instance,  it 
is  essential  that  grinders,  squeezers,  scales,  etc.,  be 
solid  and  substantial. 

Care  of  Cast  Iron  Ware 

Cast  iron  ware  is  often  supposed  to  be  difficult  to 
keep  clean.  A  great  many  of  the  difficulties  could 
be  removed  by  giving  new  articles  a  preliminary  treat- 
ment. 

New  cast  iron  ware,  which  is  to  be  used  for  cooking, 
should  be  coated  on  the  inside  with  tallow  and  allowed 
to  stand  for  a  few  days,  then  heated  until  the  fat  melts, 
and  washed  in  hot  water  and  washing  soda.  Rinse 
in  hot  water  and  wipe  dry,  rubbing  very  hard. 

After  this  it  is  only  necessary  to  fill  the  article  with 
water  after  using  and  let  it  stand  until  ready  to  wash. 
It  should  be  washed  with  hot  soapy  water,  outside  and 
inside,  rinsed,  and  thoroughly  dried. 

Iron  that  is  put  away  and  not  used  for  a  time  should 
be  coated  with  paraffin  to  prevent  rust. 

Wrought  Iron 

Wrought  iron  is  converted  from  pig  iron  by  a  process 
called  "puddling  '*  in  a  reverberatory  furnace.     This  is 


12 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


:|= 


a  low  rectangular  fire-brick  chamber  divided  into  two 
unequal  parts  by  a  wall  which  does  not  extend  to  the 
top  of  the  furnace. 

The  larger  portion  is  called  the  working  chamber 
and  the  smaller  one  the  fireplace.  The  fuel  is  bitumi- 
nous coal  with  a  long  flame  which  passes  over  the  wall 
and  melts  the  iron  and  slag  in  the  working  chamber 
without  bringing  it  in  contact  with  the  fuel.  The  mass 
is  stirred  around  with  a  "  rabble  "  until  the  carbon  is 
eliminated  and  the  pure  iron  floats  as  globules  in  the 
slag  which  has  a  lower  melting  point. 

These  globules  are  collected  in  balls,  the  slag  is 
squeezed  out,  and  they  are  ready  for  the  finishing 
processes. 

Wrought  iron,  which  is  the  purest  form  of  iron,  is 
soft  and  has  a  fibrous  structure.  When  heated  it  be- 
comes plastic  before  it  reaches  the  melting  point,  and 
may  be  rolled  into  thin  sheets  or  rounds,  and  when  cold 
worked  into  many  other  shapes. 

Steel 

In  the  House  furnishings  Department  steel  is  found 
in  the  form  of  cutlery,  in  a  few  of  the  better  grade 
utensils,  ordinarily  of  cast  iron,  and  in  the  sheet  foun- 
dations of  the  coated  ware. 

Steel  is  iron  which  has  been  greatly  hardened  by 
mixing  with  it  a  definite  amount  of  carbon.  This 
process  has  made  it  malleable,  weldable,  fusible,  and 


IRON  AND  STEEL  WARE 


13 


capable  of  being  tempered.  The  manufacture  of  steel 
is  one  of  the  greatest  industries  of  this  country.  It  is 
centered  around  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  because  of  the  near 
location  of  fuel,  coal,  coke,  and  natural  gas,  which 
are  needed  in  manufacturing. 

Steel  differs  from  cast  iron,  not  only  in  the  amount 
of  carbon  which  it  contains,  but  also  in  the  form  in 
which  the  carbon  appears. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  steel,  depending  on  the  per- 
centage of  carbon  which  each  contains.  They  are 
high-carbon,  medium-carbon,  and  low-carbon  steel. 
The  kind  used  for  cutlery  is  high-carbon,  although  some 
cheap  grades  are  made  of  medium-carbon  steel. 

Methods  of  Making  Steel 

There  are  three  methods  of  making  steel  from  pig 
iron.     These  are : 

Bessemer 
Open  hearth 
Cementation 

Bessemer  Process 

The  Bessemer  process,  named  from  Henry  Bessemer 
who  patented  it  in  1855,  is  as  follows:  First  the  pig 
iron  is  poured  into  a  pear-shaped  vessel  called  a  con- 
verter. This  vessel  is  made  of  steel  plates  riveted  to- 
gether to  form  a  shell  which  is  lined  with  ground 
quartz  or  silica.     The  vessel  is  turned  down  to  a  hori- 


t 


14 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


[■i 

Ear 

I" 


zontal  position  and  8  to  15  tons  of  molten  iron  are 
poured  into  the  smaller  end.  The  great  pot  is  then 
turned  up  again  and  a  blast  of  air  is  blown  through  it. 
The  carbon  in  the  iron  soon  bursts  into  flame  and  in 
a  few  minutes  the  carbon  is  burned  out  and  most  of 
the  other  impurities  removed.  The  flame  then  dies 
down,  fresh  carbon  is  added  in  the  form  of  "  spiegel- 
eisen,"  which  supplies  exactly  the  amount  required,  and 
the  process  is  finished. 

Open  Hearth  Process 

In  the  open  hearth  process  the  pig  iron  and  scrap  are 
melted  in  a  dish-shaped  chamber,  or  hearth,  containing 
about  50  tons.  At  each  end  of  the  chamber  are  open- 
ings which  admit  the  fuel  gas  and  air,  and  at  the  rear  a 
tapping  hole  to  let  out  the  steel  when  the  process  of 
conversion  is  completed. 

Cementation  Process 

The  cementation  process  is  the  one  used  for  making 
fine  tool  steel  and  cutlery.  The  cementation  furnace 
consists  of  two  converting  pots  or  chambers  from  8  to 
1 5  feet  long,  3  or  4  feet  wide,  and  3  feet  deep.  These 
are  placed  side  by  side  with  the  fire  beneath  them. 
The  bars  of  white  cast  iron  or  of  wrought  iron  are 
placed  in  the  pots  and  completely  surrounded  by  carbon 
in  the  form  of  charcoal.     The  pots  are  closed  so  that 


IRON  AND  STEEL  WARE 


15 


they  are  air-tight  and  the  temperature  of  the  furnace 
kept  at  1000°  C.  or  over  for  three  or  four  wxeks. 

By  this  process  the  carbon  has  been  absorbed  by  the 
iron,  but  it  is  not  evenly  distributed  through  the  bar. 
The  center  of  the  bar  may  not  be  changed  at  all.  In 
that  case,  the  bars  must  be  cut  up  and  melted,  or  else 
reheated,  hammered,  and  rolled. 

When  cast  iron  is  put  into  the  cementation  furnace 
the  processes  of  purifying  and  carburizing,  that  is,  com- 
bining with  carbon,  are  combined.  For  producing  fine 
tool  steel,  wrought  iron  is  used. 

Electric  Furnaces 

The  electric  furnace  is  coming  into  use  in  making 
wrought  iron  and  steel,  as  there  are  no  impurities  to 
be  absorbed  from  the  fuel  and  therefore  the  process 
is  simpler  and  the  product  better.  The  greater  cost  has 
thus  far  prevented  a  more  general  change.  Steel  for 
tools  or  cutlery  must  be  annealed,  hardened,  and  tem- 
pered before  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Properties  of  Steel 

Steel  which  has  only  a  low  percentage  of  carbon  has 
the  same  properties  as  wrought  iron.  While  it  melts 
only  at  a  very  high  temperature,  it  is  soft  enough  to  be 
welded,  and  is  ductile  and  malleable.  As  the  carbon 
is  increased  these  qualities  are  all  lessened,  and  high- 
carbon  steel  would  be  very  brittle  if  it  were  not  tem- 


if 

II 
■i 

I 


li 


i6 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


pered.     This  process  does  not  make  it  less  hard,  but 
renders  it  extremely  tough  and  strong. 

Annealing 

Annealing  is  the  process  of  softening  metals  and  in- 
creasing their  flexibility  and  ductility  by  heating  them 
very  hot  and  cooling  them  slowly. 

Hardening 

Hardening  steel  is  accomplished  by  heating  it  to  a 
red  heat  and  cooling  it  suddenly.  This  process  not 
only  makes  it  harder  but  also  more  brittle  and  less 
elastic. 

Tempering 

Tempering  is  a  process  applied  only  to  hardened 
steel  by  which  a  part  of  its  brittleness  is  drawn  out  and 
it  is  rendered  tougher.  This  is  done  by  reheating  the 
steel  and  cooling  it  gradually  but  not  so  slowly  as  for 
annealing. 

Steel  is  hardened  by  bringing  it  to  a  red  heat  and 
plunging  it  into  water  or  brine.  It  may  then  be  tem- 
pered by  putting  it  into  a  sand  bath  or  in  oil.  The  sand 
is  heated  by  a  fire  beneath  it  and  the  steel  is  placed  on 
top  of  the  sand  until  it  reaches  the  desired  temperature, 
which  is  indicated  by  its  color.  The  higher  the  tem- 
perature used,  the  softer  will  be  the  steel  which  results. 
The  following  table  shows  the  varying  degrees  of  tem- 
perature, color,  condition,  and  use: 


IRON  AND  STEEL  WARE 


17 


Tempera- 
ture 

Color 

Condition 

Use 

430-450*'  F. 

Pale  yellow 

Keen  edge,  hard 

Razors 

470 

Dull  yellow 

Fine  cutting  edge 

Penknives 

490-510 

Brown 

Fine  cutting  edge 

Shears 

5^ 

Purple 

Softer,  flexible 

Table  knives 

530-570 

Blue 

Softer,  very  flexible 

Watch  springs 
Sword  blades 

610 

Black 

Extremely  flexible 

Saws  and 
wood-work- 
ing tools 

Tempering  in  oil  can  be  gaged  by  the  thermometer, 
as  the  steel  cannot  become  hotter  than  the  oil.  It  is 
therefore  a  more  accurate  method.  To  harden  the 
edge  or  point  of  a  tool  its  cutting  edge  may  be  plunged 
at  a  bright  red  heat  into  water,  and  tempered  by  allow- 
ing the  heat  which  remains  at  the  other  end  to  reheat  it 
up  to  the  desired  temperature  and  then  quenching  it 
again. 

Russia  Iron 

Russia  iron  is  used  for  roasting  pans,  baking  pans, 
and  also  for  stove  pipes,  patent  elbows,  etc.  It  is  a 
special  grade  of  sheet  iron  with  a  glossy  black,  slightly 
mottled  appearance,  due  to  oxide  adhering  to  the  sur- 
face so  tenaciously  that  it  cannot  be  cracked  off  by  re- 
peated bendings.  It  is  produced  by  passing  a  pack  of 
heated  sheets  back  and  forth  under  a  steam  hammer, 
the  bit  and  anvil  of  which  have  indentations  on  their 
surfaces.  Sometimes  charcoal  powder  is  sifted  be- 
tween the  sheets  before  heating.  In  the  trade  it  is 
known  as  "  planished  iron." 


1 8  HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

Coated  Ware 

The  principal  drawback  which  has  always  attended 
the  use  of  iron  and  steel  is  the  great  tendency  of  the 
metal  to  rust  or  corrode.  Not  only  does  it  rust  easily, 
but  when  the  process  once  starts  it  proceeds  rapidly, 
soon  destroying  the  article.  Iron  differs  from  most 
metals  in  thi.s  particular.  In  all  other  metals  the  de- 
posit formed  on  the  surface  of  the  metal  protects  it 
from  further  corrosion.  This  is  seen  in  the  case  of 
copper,  which  is  used  for  the  rain  spouts  of  buildings. 
In  a  short  time  the  atmosphere  causes  a  beautiful  green 
coating  to  appear,  and  this  is  a  protection  to  the  metal. 

Many  methods  have  been  devised  for  protecting  iron 
from  air  and  rust,  such  as  enameling,  tinning,  galvan- 
izing, painting.  All  except  painting  are  used  in  mak- 
ing some  of  the  articles  in  the  Housefurnishings  De- 
partment. 

Making  the  Foundation 

The  iron  or  steel  foundations  for  coated  ware  are 
stamped  out  by  dies  from  sheet  iron  or  sheet  steel,  a 
separate  die  for  each  "  size  *'  of  each  utensil. 

Kinds  of  Dies 

The  machines  used  for  stamping  and  shaping  the 
material  are  of  many  kinds  and  styles,  and  their  work 
is  sometimes  so  intricate  as  to  seem  almost  miraculous. 
The  principal  classes  of  dies  are: 


IRON  AND  STEEL  WARE  19 

Cutting  dies 

Bending  and  forming  dies 

Perforating  dies 

Curling,  wiring,  and  seaming  dies 

Drawing  dies 

Cutting  Dies 

Cutting  dies  are  the  simplest  forms.  They  consist 
of  two  parts,  the  die  or  die  plate,  and  the  punch, 
operated  in  a  power  press.  The  sheet  of  metal  which 
is  to  be  cut,  called  the  "  blank,"  is  placed  on  the  die 
plate  and  the  punch  falls  on  it  and  cuts  out  the  desired 
shape.  Pieced  or  seamed  utensils  are  made  from  pieces 
so  cut  out.     These  dies  are  also  called  blanking  dies. 

Besides  the  simple  blanking  dies,  there  are  dies  which 
perform  several  operations  at  once  and  others  which 
stamp  out  a  number  of  pieces  at  one  time. 

Figure  2  shows  the  blanks  of  parts  of  several  kitchen 
utensils  formed  by  cutting  dies. 

Bending  and  Forming  Dies 

These  dies  have  more  complicated  parts.  The  die 
and  the  punch  are  so  constructed  that  as  the  punch 
presses  down  it  bends  the  metal  into  the  shape  desired, 
the  work  being  held  in  place  by  a  spring  pad.  Hinges, 
latches,  hooks,  and  many  small  articles  are  made  in 
this  kind  of  die. 


! 


s 


9 


CZ3> 


/i 


// 


z 


> 


/f 


1.  Dish]>an 

2.  Flaring  Pail 

3.  Lard  Pail 

4.  Milk  Pan 

5.  Tea  and  CoflFee  Pot 

Spouts 


6. 

i: 

9 
10. 

XI. 


From  "  Dies,  Their  Construction  and  Use," 
Figure  2.    "  Blanks  "  of 

Oil  can  Breast  u.  Coffee  Pot 

Dipper  Handles  13, 

Dipper  Bowl  14. 

Scoop  Handle  15. 

Scoop  Boss  16. 

Dishpan  Handle  17, 
20 


Coffee  Boiler 
Scoop  Body 
Scoop  Back 
Scoon  Band 
18.  Cup  Handles 


zi 


JLo 


*7 


^/ 


^S 


a 


^f 


CD 


: 


e7 

i/ 

by  courtesy  of  Norman  W.  Henley  Publishing  Co. 
Various  Kitchen  Utensils 

19.  Stove  Pipe  Elbow 

20.  Dripping  Pan 

21.  Dripping  Pan  Notch 

22.  Gravy   Strainer 

23.  24.  Spoons 

25.  Writing  Machine 

Lever 

26.  Coal  Hod  Hood 


27 


Coal  Hod  Back 
Handle 

28.  Coal  Hod  Rim 

29.  Dustpan  Handle 

30.  End   Piece  —  Deep 
Bread  pan 

31.  Funnel  Body 

21 


32.  Coal  Hod  Body 
33-  Coal  Hod  Front 

34.  Coal  Hod  Back 

35.  Dustpan 

36.  Side    Piece  —  Deep 

Bread  pan 

37.  Measure  Body 


22  HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

Perforating  Dies 

The  dies  used  in  making  the  holes  in  colanders,  skim- 
mers, graters,  can  tops,  and  similar  articles  have  a 
series  of  sharp  punches  in  rows.  They  are  called  per- 
forating dies. 

Curling  and  Wiring  Dies 

These  dies  are  used  for  curling  over  the  tops  of  the 
cans,  basins,  milk  pans,  or  other  sheet  metal  articles. 
The  wire  is  added  to  give  greater  strength  and  stiffness. 


From  "  Dies,  Their  Construction  and  Use,"  by  courtesy  of 
Norman  W.  Henley  Publishing  Co. 

Figure  3.    Steps  in  Curling  the  Edge  of  a  Utensil 

If  the  vessel  has  straight  sides  the  curling  may  be 
done  with  one  stroke  of  the  press,  but  if  the  sides 
slant  the  top  must  first  be  bent  over  and  then  caught  in 
the  curling  groove  and  curled. 

Seaming  is  the  permanent  joining  of  two  metal 


IRON  AND  STEEL  WARE  23 

edges.  It  may  be  done  by  simply  hooking  the  bent 
edges  over  each  other,  or,  for  a  locked  seam,  a  double 
fold  is  made.  For  the  double  seaming  of  such  pieces 
as  the  bottoms  of  teapots,  pails,  and  similar  articles, 
special  machinery  is  used. 

Figure  3  shows  how  the  curled  edge  of  a  half-round 
dish  is  formed  by  the  pressure  of  a  die.  In  the  first 
stage  the  metal  has  commenced  to  curl,  in  the  next  it 
has  curled  to  a  half-circle,  in  the  third  it  has  begun  to 
turn  back  on  itself,  and  in  the  last  it  curls  to  a  full 
circle. 

Drawing  Dies 

Drawing  dies  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  articles 
from  ductile  metals  such  as  wrought  iron,  steel,  tin, 
copper,  brass,  and  aluminum.  By  means  of  these  dies 
a  flat  piece  of  metal  can  be  drawn  into  a  deep  vessel  by 
pressure  and  tension  alone. 

There  are  four  types  of  drawing  dies : 
Simple  push-through  dies 

Punching  and  drawing  dies  with  double-acting 
press 

Punching  and   drawing  dies  with  single-acting 

press 
Triple-acting  dies 

The  simple  push-through  dies  take  the  blank  after  it 
has  been  stamped  out  in  a  blanking  die,  and  while  the 


24         HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

edges  are  held  firmly  the  punch  presses  and  pushes  it 
down  to  the  desired  length  of  the  shell. 

The  combination  dies  cut  out  the  blank,  draw  it  into 
shape,  and  sometimes  finish  it  off.  The  double-acting 
presses  can  turn  out  articles  of  almost  any  shape,  the 
number  of  operations  depending  on  the  thickness  of  the 
metal.  If  the  shape  is  simple  and  straight-sided,  a 
push-through  die  is  used.  For  tapering  or  irregular 
shapes  the  die  plate  must  have  a  solid  bottom  of  the 
shape  required  into  which  the  punch  fits. 

The  single-acting  presses  can  be  used  only  for  shal- 
low articles,  such  as  the  tops  for  cans. 

Triple-acting  presses  are  the  same  in  principle  as 
the  solid  bottom  double-acting  ones,  cutting,  drawing, 
forming,  and  stamping  or  lettering  the  shell  by  one  con- 
tinous  process. 

Successful  Drawing 

The  successful  drawing  of  metal  in  dies  depends  on 
the  firm,  even  pressure  which  does  not  allow  the  strain 
to  be  greater  on  one  part  than  on  another,  and  the 
perfect  fitting  of  the  sections  of  the  die  so  as  to  prevent 
the  metal  from  wrinkling  or  buckling.  These  condi- 
tions are  secured  by  delicately  adjusted  springs  and 
many  automatic  attachments  to  control  the  action  of 

the  machine. 

The  metal  must  also  be  of  the  right  degree  of  duc- 
tility for  the  drawing  process.     Cast  iron  is  too  hard 


IRON  AND  STEEL  WARE 


25 


and  must  be  made  into 
wrought  iron,  which  is 
soft  and  fibrous.  Steel 
must  be  annealed.  The 
metal  is  coated  with  a  thin 
film  of  oil  or  grease  while 
it  is  being  worked. 

The  drawing  of  a  deep 
shell  is  not  accomplished 
by  one  stroke  of  the 
punch.  There  are  some- 
times five  or  six  opera- 
tions, the  shell  being 
drawn  first  on  dies  having 
outside  blank  holders  and 
then  on  those  having  in- 
side blank  holders,  each 
one  having  a  smaller  di- 
ameter than  the  one  be- 
fore. 

Figure  4  shows  how 
many  steps  are  necessary 

in  drawing  a  tube,  and  the  Frontispiece  shows  several 
of  the  large  number  of  operations  performed  in  mak- 
ing such  a  simple  article  as  a  funnel.  Eighteen  ad- 
ditional operations  are  required  after  the  twelfth 
stamping  operation  to  finish  the  funnel. 


« 

3 

8 

^ — 

1 

„^^^ 

From     "  Dies, 
and  Use,"  by 
W.  Henley  P 


Their     Construction 
courtesy  of  Norman 
ublishing  Co. 


Figure  4.    operations  in  Draw- 
ing a  Tube 


26 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


The  shells  for  the  larger  articles  are  made  on  draw- 
ing dies  with  as  few  seams  as  possible,  so  that  the  sur- 
face may  be  smooth  and  even. 

Ears,  handles,  sprouts,  etc.,  are  electrically  welded,  so 
that  the  metal  in  the  body  of  the  article  and  that  in  the 
attachment  unite  as  one. 


11 


I 


Chapter  III 

ENAMELED  WARE 

Popularity 

The  enameled  ware  section  is  a  large  one.  Enam- 
eled ware  is  unquestionably  the  most  popular  as 
well  as  the  staple  ware  for  household  use  on  the  market 
today.  The  chief  reason  is  doubtless  its  reasonable 
price.  It  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  home  in  this 
country  where  it  is  not  used,  either  as  the  whole  equip- 
ment of  the  kitchen,  or  for  some  part  of  it.  All 
varieties  of  utensils  are  made  of  it  and  it  has  largely 
replaced  tinned  ware. 

Variety  of  Stock 

The  stock,  coUv^sisting  of  white,  blue,  blue  and  white, 
and  gray  ware,  includes : 

I.  For  the  stove: 
Teakettles 

Kettles  for  all  uses 
Saucepans 

Tea-  and  coffee-pots 
Steamers 

37 


Double  boilers 
Asparagus  boilers 
Ham  boilers 
Frying  pans 


28 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


2.  For  the  oven: 

Bread,  cake,  and  muffin  pans 
Pie  plates 

Pudding   and    other  baking  dishes 
Meat  roasters 


3.  For  preparing  and  containing 

Bowls 

Cups  and  saucers 

Spoons 

Plates,  platters 

Pitchers 

Boxes 

Jars 

Strainers 

4.  For  the  sink: 

Dishpans 
Draining  pans 
Soap  dishes 

5.  For  miscellaneous  uses : 

Foot  tubs 
Dinner  pails 
Covered  buckets 


food: 

Colanders 

Skimmers 

Dippers,  ladles 

Funnels 

Measures 

Pails 

Bread  raisers 

Milk  pans 

Wash  basins 
Sink  strainers 


Cuspidors 
Chamber  pails 


Composition  of  Enameled  Ware 

Enameled  ware  is  sheet  iron  or  steel  coated  with  a 
glazed  material  which  protects  the  iron  from  rusting. 
This  coating  is  not  actually  united  with  the  iron  as  in 


» 


ENAMELED  WARE 


29 


the  case  of  tinned  ware  (see  Chapter  IV),  but  is  fused 
or  "  fired  "  on  so  that  it  will  withstand  ordinary  usage. 
The  foundations  are  made  by  the  methods  described 
in  the  preceding  chapter.  The  foundations  must  be 
firm  and  unbending  or  the  enamel  will  chip  off  when 
the  article  is  bent  and  expose  the  iron  to  action  of  rust. 
In  time  this  action  will  undermine  the  entire  covering. 

Composition  of  Enamel 

The  hard,  smooth  coating  of  enamel  is  a  form  of 
glass,  and  like  glass  is  composed  chiefly  of  silica,  or 
sand,  combined  with  feldspar,  potash,  soda,  borax, 
and  some  substance  to  produce  the  required  color. 
The  proportions  vary  in  different  manufactories  and 
are  carefully  guarded  trade  secrets. 

There  is,  however,  one  very  striking  difference  be- 
tween the  ingredients  of  glass  and  those  of  enamel. 
Glass  often  contains  substances,  like  arsenic,  which  are 
perfectly  harmless  so  long  as  the  article  is  not  sub- 
jected to  heat,  but  which  would  be  poisonous  in  cook- 
ing utensils.  Such  materials  are  not  used  at  all  in 
enameled  ware. 

Preparation  of  Enamel 

Just  as  in  the  manufacture  of  glass,  the  first  step  in 
the  enamel-making  is  to  prepare  the  "  batch,"  which  is 
simply  the  mixture  of  all  the  materials  together. 


4 
I? 
s 


I 


30 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


It  is  very  important  that  this  mixture  be  of  the  right 
composition,  for  this  determines  whether: 

1.  The  enamel  will  stick  to  the  vessel  properly. 

2.  The  enamel  will  bake  on  with  a  smooth  surface. 

3.  The  surface  will  be  non-porous. 

4.  The  gloss  will  be  lasting. 

5.  The  color  or  mottling  will  be  attractive. 

When  the  batch  has  been  thoroughly  mixed  it  is 
emptied  into  a  red-hot  furnace,  in  which  it  is  melted 
and  becomes  a  thick,  sirupy  mass.  While  it  is  in  this 
liquid  form  the  furnace  is  tapped  and  the  melted 
enamel  is  run  out  into  water,  which  causes  it  to  break 
up  into  small  particles. 

Grinding  of  Enamel 

This  breaking  up  is  to  facilitate  the  next  process, 
grinding,  as  small  bits  are  more  easily  pulverized  than 
larger  pieces.  The  grinding  process  takes  place  in 
large  mills  in  which  the  enamel  is  mixed  with  clay  and 
other  substances.  When  it  issues  from  the  mill  it  is 
ready  to  be  melted  again  and  applied  to  the  sheet  iron 
or  steel  foundation. 

Preparation  of  the  Foundation  for  the  Coating 

The  sheet  iron  or  steel  articles  resulting  from  the 
drawing  or  stamping  processes  described  above,  have  a 
black,  scaly  surface  and  must  be  cleaned  and  prepared 


ENAMELED  WARE 


31 


to  receive  the  enamel  coating.  They  are  accordingly 
passed  through  an  acid  bath,  which  removes  all  for- 
eign matter  from  their  surfaces. 

If  the  foundations  should  be  examined  at  this  point 
under  a  very  strong  magnifying  glass,  they  would  ap- 
pear as  though  small  bits  of  steel  were  projecting  all 
over  their  surfaces.  These  catch  and  hold  the  enamel. 
When  more  than  one  coat  of  enamel  is  applied,  as  is 
the  case  with  white  ware,  the  enamel  has  a  smooth, 
glassy  surface  to  cling  to  instead  of  the  rougher  steel. 
Therefore  it  does  not  adhere  so  strongly  and  is  much 
more  liable  to  chip  off  than  is  the  single-coated 
ware. 


Application  of  Enamel  to  the  Article 

The  article  is  then  immersed  in  the  enamel  bath. 
Great  care  is  taken  to  have  the  enamel  evenly  distrib- 
uted by  turning  the  article  in  many  positions,  so  that 
all  parts  of  it  will  be  thoroughly  covered;  otherwise 
the  coating  would  not  be  satisfactory.  This  seem- 
ingly simple  operation  requires  skilled  workers. 

As  said  before,  white  ware  is  always  coated  more 
than  once ;  the  best  variety  has  three  coats.  Any  ware 
that  is  white  inside  or  white  all  over  is  first  given  a 
ground  coat  and  then  two  coats  of  enamel.  The 
cheaper  white  ware  has  only  one  additional  coat. 

If  a  combination  of  colors,  such  as  blue  and  white, 
or  green  and  white,  is  desired,  the  article  is  given  one 


: 


32 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


or  more  coats  of  one  color  and  then  while  still  wet  the 
other  color  is  applied,  with  the  result  that  the  two 
merge. 

The  articles  are  then  dried  thoroughly. 

Fusing 

The  next  step  is  known  as  fusing,  a  process  which 
causes  the  firm  adherence  of  the  enamel  to  the  article. 
The  articles  are  placed  in  steel  frames  and  run  into 
muffle  furnaces  which  are  either  red-hot  or  almost 
white-hot.  The  time  required  to  cause  perfect  fusing 
varies  from  one  to  three  or  four  minutes.  The  ar- 
ticles are  then  withdrawn  and  gradually  cooled. 

If  the  articles  have  only  a  single  coat  of  enamel,  they 
are  now  finished.  When  dipped  twice,  or  three  or 
four  times,  the  fusing  is  repeated  after  every  coat  of 
enamel. 

Finishing 

In  the  case  of  pans  or  other  such  simple  utensils, 
the  articles  are  then  inspected,  labeled,  and  shipped. 
In  the  case  of  more  complicated  utensils,  such  as  ket- 
tles, coffee-pots,  etc.,  covers  are  fitted,  and  bails  or 
handles  attached. 

Varieties  of  Enameled  Ware 

"  Agate  "  ware  is  one  trade  name  for  the  mottled 
ware,  so  named  because  it  somewhat  resembles  the 


ENAMELED  WARE 


33 


mottled  appearance  of  the  agate.    It  is  a  specially 
durable  variety  of  enameled  ware. 

"  Granite  "  ware  is  another  trade  name  for  the  gray 
mottled  ware,  so  called  because  pulverized  granite  is 
actually  added  to  the  "  batch,"  and  also  because  its 
gray  mottling  somewhat  resembles  granite. 

Care  of  Enameled  Ware 

With  reasonable  care  enameled  ware  is  durable,  but 
there  is  one  thing  which  must  be  guarded  against  in  the 
very  best  of  ware.  The  enamel  must  not  be  injured 
so  that  it  cracks  or  chips  off.  Cracking  can  be  pro- 
duced in  three  ways: 

By  a  heavy  blow,  which  breaks  the  enamel  by  its 
force. 

By  the  sudden  application  of  excessive  heat, 
which  makes  the  underlying  iron  expand  faster 
than  the  glazed  coating  and  causes  the  enamel 
to  crack. 

By  the  sudden  application  of  excessive  cold  to  a 
very  hot  vessel,  which  causes  a  rapid  contrac- 
tion and  subsequent  cracking  of  the  enamel. 

The  iron  is  then  exposed  at  points  where  the  enamel 
is  broken,  acids  in  the  foods  attack  it,  and  gradually 
the  whole  enamel  is  undermined. 

Unless  this  accident  has  occurred,  housekeepers  need 
have  no  fear  of  cooking  acid  food  or  any  other  food  in 


I 


34 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


enameled  ware  utensils,  because  enamel  is  not  attacked 
by  any  chemical  substance  except  hydrofluoric  acid, 
used  for  etching  glass ;  this  acid  is  not  found  in  foods. 

The  hard,  smooth,  non-porous,  non-scaly,  glossy 
surface  of  enameled  ware  makes  it  very  easy  to  keep 
clean  and  sanitary. 

Any  bad  discoloration  can  be  removed  from  enam- 
eled ware  by  soaking  the  utensil  in  washing  soda  and 
hot  water. 

History 

Enameling  as  an  art  is  of  very  ancient  origin,  and 
the  process  of  applying  beautifully  colored  enamels  to 
gold  jewelry  has  been  practiced  for  centuries. 

The  application  of  the  art  to  household  utensils, 
however,  was  first  practiced  by  the  French,  and  then 
introduced  into  Sweden,  Germany,  and  England.  Its 
introduction  into  the  United  States  is  comparatively 
recent,  but  today  domestic  enameled  ware  occupies  a 
leading  place  in  the  market. 

As  in  all  manufactures,  improvements  in  making 
enameled  ware  have  been  rapid  and  many.  The  old 
process  was  very  slow,  as  the  enamel  was  applied  with 
a  brush,  instead  of  by  dipping.  The  fusing  also  took 
15  to  25  minutes  instead  of  i  to  4  as  at  present. 

The  United  States  ranks  first  in  the  production  of 
serviceable,  durable  enameled  utensils,  and  ships  large 
quantities  to  South  America. 


ENAMELED  WARE 


35 


The  foreign-made  ware  is  higher  in  price,  and 
usually  has  four  coats  of  very  hard  enamel  which 
firmly  adheres  to  the  base.  Since  the  recent  World 
War,  however,  little  or  none  has  been  imported  and 
American  manufacturers  are  supplying  the  constant 
demand. 

Summary  of  Selling  Points  of  Enameled  Ware 

The  conditions  upon  which  the  quality  of  enameled 
ware  depend,  and  which  the  saleswoman  must  be  ready 
to  explain,  are: 

1.  Preparation  of  steel  foundation 

2.  Quality  of  material  in  enamel 

3.  Application  of  enamel 

4.  Firing 


I 


4i 


Chapter  IV 

TINNED,  JAPANNED,  AND  GALVANIZED 

WARE 

Definitions 

Tinned,  japanned,  and  galvanized  wares  are  made  of 
sheet  iron  or  steel  coated  with  another  metal.  Tinned 
ware  is  coated  with  tin;  japanned  is  tinned  ware 
painted  with  a  special  varnish;  galvanized  ware  is 
coated  with  zinc. 

Whenever  iron  or  steel  is  coated  with  another  metal, 
there  is  a  surface  union  between  the  metals  which  is 
very  different  and  very  much  stronger  than  the  adher- 
ence of  enamel.  The  metal  coat  will  not  scale  off, 
though  it  may  be  scratched  off.  Tinned  and  galvan- 
ized ware  are  very  durable. 

Tinned  Ware  Stock 

Tinned  ware  has  continued  to  be  popular  in  spite 

of  the  growth  and  widespread  use  of  enameled  and 

aluminum  ware,  as  it  is  light  to  handle,  inexpensive, 

and  attractive  when  it  is  new.     It  also  conducts  the 

heat  well,  so  there  is  less  danger  of  scorching  food. 

36 


TINNED  WARE 


37 


Tinned  ware  stock  includes  many  articles,  especially 
those  of  smaller  size,  such  as: 

I.  For  cooking: 

Tea  and  other  kettles 
Saucepans 


Ladles,  dippers 
Steamers,  poachers 
Bread,  cake,  pie  plates 
Baking  pans 


Potato  mashers 

Colanders 

Strainers,  sieves,  sifters 

Funnels 

Egg  separators 

Measures 


Coffee-pots 
Double  boilers 

2.  For  preparing  food : 

Apple  corers 
Graters 
Biscuit  cutters 
Spoons 

Bread  and  cake  mix- 
ers 
Lemon  squeezers 

3.  For  the  sink : 

Dishpans,     draining 

pans 
Wash  basins 

4.  For  the  laundry : 

Boilers 

Manufacture  of  Tinned  Ware 

As  tin  will  not  adhere  to  the  steel  unless  the  surface 
is  perfectly  free  from  dirt,  the  steel  is  subjected  to  a 
long  cleaning  process. 

It  is  first  immersed  in  hot,  dilute  sulphuric  acid  and 


Soap  dish  and  shakers 
Wire  pot  cleaners 


38  HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

then  washed,  heated,  and  passed  through  pohshed  iron 
rollers  to  give  it  a  well-polished  surface ;  it  is  annealed 
again,  immersed  once  more  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
re-washed,  and  scoured  with  sand.  At  the  end  of  this 
process  the  sheet  is  clean  and  bright. 

Next,  each  sheet  is  put  into  a  pot  of  melted  tallow, 
where  it  is  left  until  it  is  completely  coated.  After 
this  the  plates  are  plunged  into  a  bath  of  melted  tin,  in 
which  they  remain  from  three  to  five  minutes. 

After  cooling  they  are  polished  with  bran. 

The  best  tin  plate  is  dipped  twice;  this  is  called 
"  block  tin,"  or  **  retinned  ware." 

The  articles  are  drawn  on  dies  or  seamed  from 
"  blanks  "  by  the  methods  described  in  Chapter  II. 

Care  of  Tinned  Ware 

Tinned  ware  must  not  be  scratched  so  that  the  steel 
foundation  becomes  exposed.  Rusting  will  surely  fol- 
low. Therefore,  metal  spoons  should  not  be  used  with 
a  tinned  utensil,  or  wire  rings  or  other  sharp  metal 
scrapers  for  cleaning  it.  Hot  soapy  water  should  be 
used  in  washing  it,  or,  if  it  is  very  dirty  it  may  be 
boiled  in  a  weak  solution  of  washing  soda.  It  may  be 
polished  with  whiting. 

Tinned  ware  should  not  be  subjected  to  a  high  tem- 
perature such  as  that  used  in  frying  foods,  or  even 
placed  on  the  stove  to  dry,  because  tin  melts  more 
easily  than  iron  or  aluminum. 


TINNED  WARE 


39 


Hot  acids  react  on  tin,  therefore  foods  containing 
acids,  as  tomatoes,  pineapples,  etc.,  should  not  be 
cooked  in  tinned  ware  vessels. 

History  of  Tinned  Ware 

The  process  of  coating  iron  with  tin,  the  oldest  of 
all  methods  of  metal  coating,  was  first  practiced  in 
Bohemia,  where  tin  was  discovered  in  1240,  and  for 
four  hundred  years  Bohemia  supplied  England  and 
Europe  with  tin-coated  articles.  The  process  was 
kept  secret  until  1620,  when  the  Duke  of  Saxony  ob- 
tained knowledge  of  the  secret  process  and  started  the 
manufacture  in  his  own  country. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  England  manufactured  pig 
iron  for  hundreds  of  years  it  is  strange  that  tin-plated 
ware  was  not  made  there  until  1670.  It  was  1720 
before  a  permanent  plant  was  located  and  then  the 
development  was  slow.  After  1834  the  growth  was 
rapid,  and  by  1867  England  exported  over  seven  mil- 
lion dollars'  worth. 

In  this  country  tinned  ware  was  first  manufactured 
from  imported  sheets  at  Berlin,  Conn.,  by  an  Irishman 
named  Patterson.  The  seamless  ware  was  first  called 
Frenchware,  because  it  originated  in  France;  pre- 
viously, pieces  had  been  soldered  and  seamed  together. 
In  this  country  Frenchware  was  manufactured  first  in 
New  York.  From  then  on  the  industry  gradually  de- 
veloped, and  by  Civil  War  times  there  was  a  large  de- 


40         HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

mand   for  kitchen   spoons,   and  great  quantities  of 
tinned  iron  spoons  were  made. 

The  real  growth  of  the  industry  in  the  country  has 
been  since  1890.  By  the  McKinley  tariff  a  high  pro- 
tective duty  was  imposed  on  imported  tin  plates  to  pro- 
tect and  encourage  their  manufacture  in  the  United 
States. 

Wire  Goods 

The  wire  goods  are  included  with  tinned  ware  be- 
cause the  largest  part  of  the  wire  of  which  they  are 
woven  is  tinned  steel  wire.     The  articles  include : 

1.  For  cooking  and  preparing  food : 

Broilers  and  toasters 

Frying  baskets 

Strainers,  sifters,  and  sieves 

Egg  beaters 

Potato  mashers 

Cake  coolers 

2.  For  cleaning : 

Soap  shakers  and  soap  dishes 
Draining  racks 
Waste  baskets 
Carpet  beaters 

Wire  Drawing 
The  process  of  making  wire  is  known  as  wire  draw- 


JAPANNED  WARE 


41 


ing.  Rods  of  the  metal  pointed  at  one  end  are  drawn 
through  holes  in  steel  plates.  The  rod  is  passed 
through  holes  successively  smaller  until  the  required 
size  is  reached.  As  the  metal  is  being  worked  it  grad- 
ually hardens  and  becomes  less  ductile,  so  that  the  wire 
must  be  annealed. 

Brass  wire  may  be  made  so  fine  that  gauze  may  be 
woven  of  it  containing  67,000  meshes  in  a  square  inch. 
Of  course,  no  gauze  so  fine  as  this  is  found  in  the 
articles  in  the  House  furnishings  Department,  but  many 
of  the  fine  meshed  sifters  are  made  of  brass  wire. 
Another  method  of  insuring  fineness  in  such  articles 
as  tea  strainers  is  to  make  them  of  two  thicknesses  of 
wire  gauze. 

In  Qgg  beaters  and  potato  mashers,  the  steel  wire 
is  bent  into  the  various  shapes  first  and  then  tinned. 

Japanned  Ware 

Such  articles  as : 

Boxes  and  canisters  for  tea,  coffee,  sugar,  spices, 

flour,  bread,  cake 
Dust-pans 
Trays 
Crumb  trays 

which  are  not  to  be  used  for  cooking  are  made  of 
tinned  ware  covered  with  a  hard  coating  of  colored 
varnish,  called  japan,  because  the  articles  coated  in  this 


42 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


way  resemble  the  celebrated  lacquered  goods  from 
Japan  and  China. 

The  colors  seen  are  white,  imitation  of  oak  grain, 
blue,  brown,  and  black. 

Two  or  more  coatings  of  the  japan  are  given  to  the 
better  grades.  After  each  coating  the  articles  are 
heated  for  lo  to  12  hours  in  an  oven  at  from  135  to 
165°  F.  The  japanned  surface  is  next  rubbed  with 
fine  ground  pumice,  then  with  rottenstone,  and  some- 
times finally  polished  by  hand.  Sometimes  gold  or 
bronze  bands  or  floral  decorations  are  added ;  these  are 
painted  on  in  a  special  gold  size,  then  the  gold  leaf  or 
bronze  powder  is  dusted  on,  and  the  objects  are  again 
placed  in  the  oven.  On  removal  the  gilt  or  bronzed 
portions  have  a  protecting  coat  of  varnish.  The  light 
colors  require  more  careful  heating  than  the  darker 
ones. 

Galvanized  Iron 

Galvanized  iron  cannot  be  used  for  articles  in  which 
food  is  to  be  contained  as  zinc  forms  poisonous  com- 
pounds upon  coming  in  contact  with  meat  or  vegetable 
acids.  It  is  therefore  used  for  articles  which  need  a 
strong,  non-rusting  material,  and  which  are  not  in- 
tended for  use  as  food  containers.     Such  are: 


Water  pails 
Dish  drainers 
Ash  cans 


Ash  sifters 
Garbage  pails 
Refrigerator  pans 


GALVANIZED  WARE 


43 


Manufacture  of  Galvanized  Iron 

Zinc-plated  ware  is  manufactured  by  two  processes. 

In  the  dipping  process  the  sheet  iron  articles  are  first 
cleansed  of  any  rust  or  dirt  by  immersing  them  in 
dilute  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acid.  They  are  then 
washed  in  cold  water,  scoured  with  sand,  and  plunged 
into  the  zinc  bath.  If  flat  sheets  are  being  coated  they 
are  passed  through  two  iron  rollers  to  smooth  them. 
The  thicker  the  sheets,  the  longer  will  be  the  time  re- 
quired to  coat  them,  as  it  is  necessary  for  the  iron  to 
attain  the  same  temperature  as  the  zinc  before  it  will 
adhere  well. 

The  electric  process,  otherwise  known  as  "  cold  gal- 
vanizing," is  growing  more  successful  every  year.  It 
is  far  more  satisfactory  in  coating  sheets  than  in  coat- 
ing articles  of  irregular  shape,  as  the  electric  current 
does  not  deposit  the  zinc  evenly  on  such  shapes.  The 
advantage  of  the  electrical  process  is  that  the  tough- 
ness of  the  iron  is  not  impaired  by  heating,  as  in  the 
dipping  process,  and  the  coating  adheres  better. 

See  "Jewelry  and  Silverware  Manual*'  for  further 
information  upon  electroplating. 

Care  of  Galvanized  Ware 

Only  hot  water  and  soap  should  be  used  in  cleaning 
galvanized  ware,  as  it  is  easily  attacked  by  chemicals. 
Stains  may  be  removed  by  rubbing  with  kerosene,  fol- 
lowed by  a  thorough  rinsing  with  hot  water. 


Chapter  V 
ALUMINUM  WARE 

Popularity 

Aluminum  probably  makes  a  stronger  appeal  to  the 
purchaser  than  any  other  ware  in  the  House  furnish- 
ings Department.  Its  attractiveness,  lightness,  and 
durability  have  been  so  widely  advertised  by  the  manu- 
facturers that  few  housekeepers  are  unacquainted  with 
its  advantages.  The  salesperson  therefore  needs  to  be 
particularly  well  informed  in  regard  to  all  its  good 
points. 

The  stock  includes  utensils  of  the  same  sorts  as  those 
made  of  enameled  ware,  and  in  addition  others,  such  as 
frying  pans,  which  cannot  safely  be  made  of  enameled 
ware,  because  of  the  extreme  heat  to  which  they  are 
subjected.  Fireless  cooker  receptacles  are  usually  of 
aluminum. 

Attractiveness 

The  bright,  silvery  appearance  of  aluminum  ware 
makes  a  strong  appeal  to  all  purchasers.  Aluminum, 
moreover,  does  not  tarnish  as  silver  does.     A  kitchen 

44 


ALUMINUM  WARE 


4S 


in  which  many  of  the  utensils  are  of  this  metal  is  de- 
cidedly attractive. 

Lightness 

Aluminum  is  one-third  the  weight  of  iron,  one- 
fourth  the  weight  of  silver,  and  lighter  than  glass. 
Its  lightness  makes  it  especially  suitable  for  such  ar- 
ticles as  large  frying  pans,  double  boilers,  and  roasters, 
which  in  cast  iron  are  too  heavy  to  be  handled  con- 
veniently. 

Durability 

Aluminum  is  as  strong  as  iron.  In  fact  it  is  often 
used  in  the  place  of  iron  when  strength  and  lightness 
are  both  required,  as  in  air-ships.  The  remarkable 
durability  of  the  metal  assures  the  purchaser  of  an  ar- 
ticle of  aluminum  that  it  will  last  a  lifetime.  In  addi- 
tion to  its  inherent  strength  this  metal  has  the  advan- 
tage of  being  non-rusting.  This  quality  means  much 
in  any  cooking  utensil. 

Economy 

The  initial  cost  of  aluminum  is  rather  high.  This 
is  offset,  however,  by  its  durability,  and  by  the  econ- 
omy in  fuel  which  attends  its  use. 

Aluminum  ware  requires  less  fuel,  for  it  conducts 
heat  readily.  Heat  is  distributed  through  it  twice  as 
fast  as  through  tin,  and  three  times  as  fast  as  through 


46 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


iron.  It  requires  a  large  amount  of  heat  at  first,  but 
when  the  article  is  once  filled  with  heat  very  little  is 
required  to  keep  the  contents  of  the  aluminum  kettle 
boiling.  If  gas  is  used,  it  should  be  turned  down  by 
one-third  or  one-half  after  the  contents  of  the  utensil 
have  begun  to  boil.  This  is  very  different  from  iron 
or  steel,  where  the  heat  collects  in  the  center  of  the 
utensil.  This  characteristic  of  aluminum  makes  it  a 
good  warm-weather  utensil. 

Handles  of  aluminum  utensils  are  quite  often  of 
tinned  iron,  steel,  or  wood,  because  aluminum  ones  be- 
come hot  so  quickly. 

Furthermore,  as  aluminum  is  a  good  conductor  of 
heat,  food  does  not  burn  in  aluminum  utensils  quickly : 
the  heat  distributes  itself  through  the  vessel  instead  of 
concentrating  in  one  place. 

In  addition  to  conducting  heat  rapidly  aluminum 
also  holds  heat  longer  than  any  other  metal.  This  is 
a  valuable  property  when  food  is  to  be  kept  warm. 
Coffee  and  tea  will  keep  hot  longer  in  aluminum  pots 
than  in  other  materials. 

Aluminum  is  therefore  the  common  material  for 
fireless  cooking.  Food  which  has  started  to  cook  on 
the  stove  and  has  been  transferred  to  the  fireless  cooker 
will  retain  the  original  heat  for  a  long  time.  (For 
further  information  upon  fireless  cooking,  see  Chap- 
ter XVI.) 


ALUMINUM  WARE 


47 


Occurrence  of  Aluminum 

Aluminum  is  more  abundant  than  iron,  constituting 
8  per  cent  of  the  earth's  crust,  but  it  is  always  found 
in  combination  —  never  as  a  free  metal.  Its  most 
common  form  is  in  combination  with  oxygen  in  clay. 
In  fact,  aluminum  is  the  basic  metal  of  all  clay.  It  is 
also  found  in  nearly  all  rock.  Even  the  beautiful 
precious  stones,  the  ruby  and  the  sapphire,  are  forms 
of  aluminum  in  combination  with  other  elements. 


Processes  of  Obtaining  Pure  Aluminum 

The  first  step  in  the  process  is  to  abstract  the  pure 
aluminum  from  the  mixed  form  in  which  it  occurs. 
The  clay  used  is  bauxite,  which  is  found  in  both  the 
United  States  and  Europe.  It  was  first  discovered  in 
Baux,  France.  Bauxite  does  not  contain  aluminum 
mixed  with  other  substances,  but  alumina,  which  is  the 
chemical  combination  of  aluminum  and  oxygen.  This 
alumina  is  separated  from  its  impurities  by  chemical 
means,  and  then  dried.  It  is  now  a  pure  white  pow- 
der, resembling  white  sand.  This  part  of  the  process 
is  quite  costly. 

The  next  step  is  to  secure  the  pure  aluminum  from 
this  combination  of  aluminum  and  oxygen.  This  is 
done  by  electrolysis,  a  process  which  consists  of  de- 
composing a  compound  by  passing  an  electric  current 
through  it.  As  it  requires  a  large  amount  of  elec- 
tricity   to   produce    aluminum,    the    manufacture    is 


48 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


usually  located  where  water  power  is  cheap.  For  this 
reason  plants  are  located  at  Niagara  Falls  and  Mas- 
sena  (on  the  St.  Lawrence),  in  New  York  State. 

The  aluminum  is  turned  out  in  the  form  of  ingots  or 
"  pigs/*  a  term  taken  from  iron  manufacturing. 
(See  Chapter  II.)  From  one  ton  of  aluminum  ore 
only  one-half  ton  or  less  of  alumina  is  obtained,  and 
from  this  alumina  one-fourth  ton  or  less  of  **  pig  " 
aluminum. 

Two  Varieties  of  Aluminum  Ware 

The  factory  manufacturing  the  cook?ng  utensils  re- 
ceives the  aluminum  in  this  form.  The  first  step  in 
the  manufacture  is  the  melting  of  the  bars. 

From  here  on,  the  process  differs  according  to 
whether  the  articles  are : 

Cast,  from  liquid  aluminum 
Stamped,  from  sheet  aluminum 

Casting 

The  casting  of  aluminum  ware  is  not  different  from 
the  casting  of  iron.  The  melted  aluminum  is  simply 
poured  into  a  mold  which  is  the  shape  of  the  desired 
article.  The  advantages  of  this  process  are  that  extra 
thickness  can  be  given  to  the  parts  of  the  utensil  where 
it  is  needed,  such  as  the  bottoms  of  kettles,  etc.,  and 
also  that  many  varieties  of  shapes  and  patterns  are 
obtainable. 


ALUMINUM  WARE 


. 


f 


49 


Stamping 

The  stamped  or  drawn  aluminum  articles  are  made 
by  the  process  described  in  the  latter  part  of  Chapter 
XL  Aluminum  is  susceptible  of  deeper  drawing  with 
less  annealing  than  any  of  the  other  commercial 
pietals. 

Some  stamped  aluminum  ware  is  "  spun,"  that  is, 
after  the  utensils  are  stamped  they  are  placed  on 
rapidly  revolving  chucks  which  are  shaped  to  fit  the 
inside  of  the  article  and  the  workman  presses  tools  of 
various  shapes  against  the  outside.  In  utensils  like 
coffee-pots  or  kettles,  the  top  is  turned  in  by  the  spin- 
ning process. 

Stamped  articles  often  have  lengthwise  wrinkles  in 
the  metal.  These  are  removed  by  pressing  an  iron 
tool  against  the  utensil  as  it  revolves. 

Attaching  spouts  to  stamped  articles,  such  as  tea- 
kettles or  coffee-  or  teapots,  is  an  interesting  operation. 
The  spout  and  the  body  of  the  utensil  are  made  sep- 
arately, but  a  hole  is  left  in  the  body  where  the  spout 
is  to  be  attached.  Then  the  spout  and  the  metal 
around  the  hole  are  heated,  the  two  are  brought  to- 
gether, and  aluminum  wire  is  used  to  make  the  article 
one  continuous  piece  of  aluminum. 

Polishing  and  Finishing 

Whether  cast  or  stamped,  the  polishing  and  finishing 
processes  are  the  same. 


J 


50 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


The  first  step  in  finishing  the  outside  is  to  even  the 
surface  by  grinding  the  whole  to  the  depth  of  the 
deepest  scratch.  This  is  done  by  rapidly  revolving 
buff  wheels.  Then  softer  wheels  are  brought  against 
every  part  of  the  exterior  and  the  well-known  beautiful 
silvery  polish  results. 

In  finishing  the  inside  surface  there  are  several 
methods,  each  resulting  in  a  separate  "  finish,"  as : 

1.  Polished,  like  the  outside 

2.  "  Satin  "  or  "  scratch  brush  "  finish,  done  by 

pressing  the  interior  against  a  rapidly  revolv- 
ing fine  wire  brush. 

Line  "  finish,  obtained  by  rubbing  the  interior 
surface  with  emery  cloth. 

Dip  "  finish,  a  whitish  finish,  obtained  by  ex- 
posing the  surface  to  an  acid. 

Natural  "  finish  —  not  finished  at  all,  but  left 
as  it  comes  from  the  last  manufacturing 
process. 

Electric "  finish,  a  dark  finish  which  is 
smoother  than  the  others. 


3. 


4. 


tt 


(( 


a 


6. 


Care 

Most  manufacturers  issue  directions  and  sugges- 
tions for  the  care  of  aluminum  utensils.  They  are 
not,  as  is  often  supposed,  hard  to  keep  in  good  condi- 
tion. 


ALUMINUM  WARE 


51 


The  one  point  which  all  manufacturers  emphasize  is 
that  caustic  alkalies,  such  as  lye,  ammonia,  strong  wash- 
ing powders  or  soaps  containing  alkalies,  must  not  be 
used  in  cleaning  the  utensils.  The  reason  for  this  is 
that  these  substances  attack  aluminum  freely  and  dis- 
solve portions  of  the  metal  every  time  they  come  in 
contact  with  it. 

Any  pure  soap  or  metal  polish  that  is  not  gritty  will 
cleanse  the  polished  surface. 

The  inside  often  becomes  discolored  after  cooking 
foods  containing  iron,  such  as  spinach;  or  if  hard 
water  is  used.  This  is  harmless,  and  can  be  easily 
removed  by  the  use  of  cleaning  powder.  Persistent 
black  coatings  may  be  removed  with  steel  wool.  Coat- 
ings of  burned  grease  may  be  removed  by  boiling  the 
utensil  about  five  minutes  in  a  gallon  of  water  to  which 
three  or  four  tablespoons  of  oxalic  acid  crystals  have 
been  added.  Wash  the  utensil  afterwards  in  plenty  of 
soap  and  hot  water. 

Some  people  have  the  impression  that  aluminum  is 
easily  melted.  The  fact  is  that  its  melting  point  is 
1215°,  while  water  boils  at  212°.  Therefore,  there  is 
no  danger  that  aluminum  will  melt  in  ordinary  cook- 
ing operations,  if  water  or  moist  food  is  contained  in 
the  vessel.  But  if  the  dish  is  allowed  to  remain  over 
the  fire  without  water  it  may  melt. 

Another  wrong  impression  is  that  it  is  harmful  to 
cook  acid  foods  in  aluminum  utensils.     Very  careful 


52 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


experiments  have  been  made  to  discover  the  exact 
nature  of  the  changes  which  take  place  when  such 
foods  are  prepared,  and  it  has  been  proved  that  there 
is  no  danger  from  the  use  of  aluminum  articles. 

History 

Considering  the  present  popularity  and  tne  many 
advantages  to  be  gained  from  using  aluminum  in  the 
kitchen,  it  is  a  surprise  to  learn  how  recently  it  has 
come  into  use.  The  year  1855  w^s  the  first  year  of 
its  commercial  existence.  It  then  sold  at  $90  a  pound. 
By  1870,  owing  to  discoveries  in  methods  of  extract- 
ing it  by  electricity  from  the  substances  with  which 
it  was  combined,  the  price  had  declined  to  $12  a  pound. 
In  1889  it  was  $2  and  ten  years  later  29  cents. 

Until  it  reached  a  level  which  brought  it  within 
reach  of  the  ordinary  consumer,  it  was  not  available 
for  household  use. 

The  United  States  Government  buys  large  quanti- 
ties of  aluminum  canteens,  mess  kettles,  coffee  boilers, 
stock  pots,  etc.,  for  army  use. 

Summary  of  Selling  Points 

The  selling  points  for  aluminum  ware  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows: 

1.  Non-poisonous  5.  Lightness 

2.  Non-rusting  6.  Durability 

3.  Does  not  scorch  7.  Economy  of  fuel 

4.  Cooks  quickly 


Chapter  VI 

WOODENWARE 

Articles 

The  wooden  articles  in  the  House  furnishings  De- 
partment, in  addition  to  furniture,  are : 

I.  Utensils  for  preparing  and  containing  food: 
Rolling  pins 

Bread,  meat,  and  cake  boards 
Chopping  bowls 
Spoons,  forks 
Salad  sets 
Nut  bowls 
Potato  mashers 
Butter  paddles  and  molds 
Buckets 
Handles  of  various  utensils 

2.  Laundry  and  cleaning  implements: 
Ironing  boards 
Wringers 
Washboards 
Clothes-pins 
Pails 

53 


lill 


54         HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

Tubs 

Clothes  horses 

Curtain  stretchers 

Backs  of  brushes 

Handles  of  brooms  and  brushes 

Cases  of  carpet-sweepers 

Character  of  Wood 

More  than  fifty  varieties  of  wood  and  400,000,000 
feet  of  lumber  are  used  in  this  country  each  year  in 
making  articles  of  wooden  ware  and  novelties,  a  very 
large  number  of  which  are  sold  in  this  department. 

The  choice  of  the  wood  to  be  used  depends  on  the 
purpose  for  which  the  article  is  intended.  Some  arti- 
cles must  be  light,  others  stiff,  others  strong,  others 
tough,  others  hard.  The  physical  properties  of  wood 
vary  with  the  species,  the  rate  of  growth,  the  locality, 
and  the  method  of  seasoning.  Each  one  of  these  con- 
siderations has  some  definite  effect  on  the  final  char- 
acter of  the  wood. 

The  characteristics  which  must  be  considered  are : 


WOODENWARE 


55 


Hardness 

Stiffness 

Strength 

Shrinkage 

Toughness 

Weight 

Hardness 

Hardness  is  a  wood's  resistance  to  wear.     This  is 
an  important  quality,  and  one  most  necessary  for  a 


large  number  of  household  utensils.  Chopping  bowls 
and  bread  and  meat  boards  must  resist  severe  cutting 
blows ;  rolling  pins  must  be  hard. 

The  hard  woods  are  oak,  beech,  birch,  maple,  wal- 
nut, ash,  hickory,  all  of  which  belong  to  the  broad  leaf 
variety  of  trees.  The  soft  woods  are  pine,  spruce, 
hemlock,  cedar,  cypress,  which  belong  to  the  '*  conifer- 
ous,'' or  cone-bearing  family.  The  hard  woods  are 
on  an  average  two  or  three  times  as  hard  as  the  others, 
but  some  of  the  so-called  hard  woods  are  really  quite 
soft,  and  vice  versa. 

The  softer  a  wood  is  the  easier  it  is  to  work,  and 
therefore  when  there  is  no  particular  advantage  to  be 
gained  by  using  a  hard  wood,  a  soft  one  is  often  sub- 
stituted. For  example,  ironing  boards,  tubs,  and 
other  implements  are  often  of  soft  woods,  which  are 
nevertheless  hard  enough  for  the  purpose. 

Strength 

By  strength  is  meant  the  ability  of  the  wood  to  re- 
sist crushing,  or  pulling  or  breaking  apart.  This  is 
another  very  important  characteristic  in  selecting  wood 
for  such  purposes  as  kitchen  chairs.  In  general,  hard 
woods  are  stronger  than  soft. 

Toughness 

By  toughness  is  meant  a  wood's  ability  to  bend 
without   breaking.     This   characteristic   is   known    as 


56 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


resiliency,  a  most  useful  property,  and  especially  desir- 
able in  handles. 

The  hard  woods  are  about  three  times  as  tough  as 
the  soft.  Among  the  hard  woods  the  hickory  is  the 
toughest.  This  is  the  reason  why  hickory  supplies 
the  wood  for  more  than  two-fifths  of  all  handles  made. 
(See  "  Hickory,"  below.) 

Among  the  soft  woods  pine  is  the  toughest,  and  the 
alpine  fir  the  least  tough. 

Stiffness 

This  characteristic  is  the  resistance  which  a  stick 
offers  to  a  force  which  tends  to  change  its  shape. 

Soft  woods,  in  comparison  with  their  weight,  are 
stiffer  than  hard. 

Shrinkage 

By  shrinkage  is  meant  the  amount  of  weight  which 
a  piece  of  wood  loses  in  passing  from  the  green  to 
the  dry  condition.  Newly  cut,  or  *'  green  "  wood,  is 
full  of  moisture;  one-half,  or  sometimes  more,  of  its 
weight  is  water,  which  is  held  in  the  walls  of  the  cells 
and  between  the  cells.  A  large  proportion  of  this 
water  must  be  removed  before  the  timber  is  in  shape  to 
use,  as  green  wood  is  likely  to  decay. 

The  process  by  which  this  moisture  is  removed  is 
known  as  "  seasoning.**  There  are  two  general  meth- 
ods of  doing  this: 


WOODENWARE 


57 


Natural  drying  —  by  air 
Artificial  or  kiln  drying 

Natural  drying  is  done  at  the  saw  mill.  The  sawed 
boards  are  piled  in  such  a  way  that  there  is  good  cir- 
culation of  air  between  them,  and  the  pile  sloped  at  the 
top  so  that  the  water  will  run  off  quickly.  The  length 
of  the  process  depends  upon  the  time  of  year,  the 
weather,  and  the  kind  of  lumber.  In  the  dry  climate 
of  the  southwest  it  takes  only  two  months  for  pine 
to  dry  in  summer,  while  in  the  damper  climate  of  the 
Gulf  coast  cypress  takes  a  year  to  dry.  Lumber  dried 
in  the  natural  way  contains  from  15  to  30  per  cent  of 
moisture. 

In  the  artificial  process  of  kiln  drying,  the  work  is 
carefully  regulated  by  principles  which  have  been 
worked  out,  and  the  lumber  is  usually  superior  to  the 
air-dried.     The  two  processes  are  often  combined. 

Besides  losing  moisture  and  consequently  weight, 
seasoned  wood  is  different  from  green  in  other  re- 
spects. It  is  stronger,  stiffer,  and  harder,  but  not  so 
tough.     It  is  less  liable  to  shrink  in  subsequent  usage. 

Among  the  soft  woods,  cedar  and  white  pine  shrink 
the  least,  spruce  somewhat  more,  and  long-leaf  pine 
and  tamarack  the  most. 

Among  the  hard  woods,  locust,  butternut,  and  black 
cherry  shrink  little,  maple  somewhat  more,  and  white 
oak,  hickory,  and  birch  the  most.     The  hard  lumber 


58 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


requires  more  care  in  seasoning  to  prevent  warping 
and  checking  or  cracking. 

Lumber  Used  in  Kitchen  Utensils 

As  mentioned  above,  each  species  of  lumber  is  par- 
ticularly adapted  to  some  certain  purpose :  some  kinds 
for  cabinet  work  and  fininshing;  others  for  use  in 
foundation  work.  In  the  Housefumishings  Depart- 
ment, however,  durability  and  serviceability,  rather 
than  appearance,  are  considered.  In  the  following 
sections  the  woods  commonly  used  are  described. 

Ash 

Ash  is  a  heavy,  tough,  elastic  wood,  with  a  coarse 
grain  which  shows  up  well  in  the  finishing  process. 
This  makes  ash  a  suitable  wood  for  certain  kinds  of 
furniture,  such  as  refrigerators  or  kitchen  cabinets. 
The  grain  in  lumber  is  produced  by  varying  combina- 
tions of  cells  of  different  kinds.  Spring  wood  and 
summer  wood,  sap  wood  and  heart  wood,  slow  growth 
and  rapid  growth,  knots,  and  burls,  all  represent  nat- 
ural variations  which  are  accentuated  by  the  sawing 
and  finishing  processes  which  bring  out  the  beautiful 
grains. 

Basswood 

Basswood  is  the  lightest,  softest,  and  weakest  of  the 
hardwoods.     It  is  neither  stiff  nor  strong,  but  because 


WOODENWARE 


59 


of  its  even  grain,  white  color,  and  ease  of  working  it  is 
very  widely  used.  Twenty-three  per  cent  of  the  total 
amount  is  used  for  boxes  and  crates. 

Bread  boards,  butter  paddles,  ironing  boards,  wash- 
boards, and  pails  are  made  of  basswood. 

Beech 

Beech  is  a  moderately  strong  and  heavy  hard  wood. 
Its  wear-resisting  qualities  make  it  especially  desirable 
for  a  large  number  of  uses.  Broom  handles,  clothes- 
pins, ironing  boards,  pails,  refrigerators,  washing  ma- 
chines, washboards,  etc.,  are  often  made  of  beech. 

Birch 

There  are  thirty-five  known  varieties  of  birch,  but 
the  three  principally  used  in  woodenware  are:  paper 
or  white  birch,  yellow  birch,  and  red  or  cherry  birch. 
The  wood  is  close-grained,  hard,  tough,  and  takes  a 
high  polish.  The  yellow  and  red  birches  are  heavy, 
of  average  stiffness  and  strength,  and  more  than  aver- 
age toughness.  Birch  is  used  for  clothes-pins,  wash- 
boards, broom  handles,  and  carpet-sweepers. 

Cottonwood 

Cottonwood  is  light,  soft,  of  even  grain,  and  easily 
worked,  but  tougher  and  stiffer  than  basswood.  It 
wears  well  for  a  soft  wood.  About  half  of  the  Cot- 
tonwood lumber  is  used  for  boxes,  and  most  of  the 
rest  for  ironing  boards,  washboards,  baskets,  etc. 


II. 


6o         HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

Cypress 

Cypress  has  been  called  "  the  wood  eternal."  It  is 
one  of  the  strongest  and  heaviest  of  soft  woods.  It 
resists  moisture  very  well,  and  has  accordingly  always 
been  largely  used  for  shingles.  This  quality  makes  it 
desirable  for  ice-cream  buckets,  pails,  tubs,  wringers. 

Hickory 

There  are  a  number  of  species  of  hickory.  It  is 
the  strongest,  toughest,  and  heaviest  of  the  native 
woods.  Its  toughness  makes  it  good  for  vehicles,  and 
60  per  cent  of  the  product  is  used  for  this  purpose, 
while  31  per  cent  is  used  for  handles. 

Maple 

There  are  four  species  of  maple  used  in  making 
wooden  articles :  the  hard  or  sugar  maple,  red,  soft  or 
silver,  and  Oregon  maples. 

Hard  maple  is  the  most  abundant  and  useful  variety. 
It  is  of  moderate  weight,  strong  and  hard,  and  has 
good  wearing  qualities.  It  is  employed  wherever 
strength  and  resistance  are  required,  as  in  the  case  of 
chopping  bowls,  rolling  pins,  bread  boards,  carpet- 
sweepers,  clothes-pins,  pails,  meat  boards,  etc. 

Soft  maple  is  lighter  in  weight,  not  so  strong,  stiflF, 
or  hard.  It  has  an  attractive  grain,  and  is  used  for 
broom  handles,  butter  bowls,  ironing  boards,  etc 


WOODENWARE 


61 


Oak 

There  are  more  than  fifty  species  of  oak,  but  most 
of  it  is  marketed  under  the  general  names  of  "  white  " 
or  "  red  **  oak. 

Oak  is  heavy,  hard,  strong  and  tough,  with  a  char- 
acteristic figure  which  makes  it  good  finishing  wood. 
It  is  widely  used  for  refrigerator  cases,  kitchen  cabi- 
nets, furniture  and  fixtures. 

Pine 

Pine  is  found  in  almost  every  forest  region,  and  is 
as  plentiful  as  oak.  It  furnishes  one-half  of  the  total 
lumber  supply  of  the  country.  There  are  two  large 
groups,  the  white  and  the  yellow;  and  the  properties 
are  as  marked  as  the  species. 

White  pine  is  even-grained,  soft,  and  easily  worked, 
resembling  spruce  and  cedar.  It  is  used  for  kitchen 
cabinets,  washing  machines,  pails,  refrigerators,  and 
most  interior  work. 

Yellow  pine  is  the  heaviest,  hardest,  strongest,  stiff- 
est,  and  toughest  of  soft  woods,  and  is  in  demand  for 
general  building  purposes. 

Poplar 

Yellow  poplar  is  a  light,  soft,  fine-grained,  easily 
worked,  durable  wood,  much  like  basswood.  It  is 
used  as  a  backing  for  veneer.    It  is  a  valuable  wood 


^2         HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

for    washboards,    carpet-sweepers,    ironing    boards, 
washing  machines,  etc. 

Spruce 

Spruce  is  a  h'ght-weight,  soft,  even-grained,  easily 
worked,  stiff,  and  strong  wood.  It  is  used  for  broom 
handles,  butter  tubs,  inside  partitions  of  refrigerators, 
ironing  tables,  and  washboards. 

Wood-Working 

The  lumber  and  wood-working  industries  are 
among  the  largest  in  the  country.  Thousands  of 
workers  are  employed  in  the  various  stages  of  cutting 
the  trees  in  the  forests,  transporting  the  logs  to  the  saw 
mills,  sawing  them  into  boards,  planing  the  rough 
boards,  and  making  the  finished  articles. 

Much  of  the  material  for  woodenware  goes  to  the 
factory  in  log  form  without  passing  through  the  saw 
mill. 

Turning 

Many  of  the  wooden  articles  of  the  department, 
such  as  rolling  pins,  bowls,  etc.—  in  fact,  anything  that 
is  round  or  cylindrical  —  are  made  on  turning  lathes. 

There  are  wide  variations  in  the  work  and  construc- 
tion of  turning  lathes,  but  the  principle  is  always  the 
same,  i.e,  rough,  round,  octagonal,  or  square  blocks  of 
wood  or  other  substances  are  fixed  in  place  between 


WOODENWARE 


63 


two  rigid  centers  and  revolved  rapidly,  while  a  chisel 
or  other  cutting  tool  is  held  against  the  block. 

According  to  the  method  of  operation,  there  are  two 
kinds  of  lathes: 

Foot  lathes,  operated  by  the  workman. 
Power     lathes,     operated     by     machinery     and 
"power." 

With  respect  to  the  species  of  work  they  do  there 
are  also  two  classes : 

Center  lathes,  which  form  outside  surfaces. 
Spindle,  mandrel,  or  chuck  lathes,  which  perform 
hollow  or  inside  work. 

Both  types  of  work,  however,  may  be  done  on  one 
lathe.  'There  are  many  varieties  of  automatic  attach- 
ments which  assist  in  shaping  the  articles,  and  a  skil- 
ful mechanic  can  obtain  large  varieties  of  shapes. 
Lathes  are  also  used  in  shaping  metal,  bone,  and  ivory. 

Finishing 

For  many  of  the  simple  articles  in  this  department, 
the  finishing  process  consists  merely  in  sandpapering. 
This  may  be  done  by  an  endless  belt  on  which  sand  or 
emery  has  been  fixed. 

Joints 

When  two  pieces  of  wood  are  to  be  jointed  together, 
as  in  cakeboards,  buckets  and  pails,  or  furniture,  many 


64         HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

methods  are  used,  depending  upon  the  material,  the 
strength  required,  and  the  character  of  the  work  in 
hand.  In  former  times  all  joints  were  made  by  hand, 
but  now  every  kind  can  be  made  more  accurately  by 
machinery. 

The  three  types  of  jointing  are: 

Straight-angle  jointing 
Edge-to-edge  jointing 
End-to-end  jointing 

and  each  type  can  be  effected  in  various  ways. 

The  simplest  method  of  joining  two  pieces  of  wood 
at  right  angles  is  by  nailing  or  screwing.     This  serves 
for  rough  work,  but  is  clumsy  and  not  very  strong. 
^   A  better  way  is  by  what  is  called  the  half-and-half 
joint,  in  which  one-half  the  material  at  the  end  of  each 
piece  to  be  joined  is  cut  away.     (See  Figure  5.)     If 
carefully  done  this  makes  a  serviceable  and  neat  joint. 
The  mortice-and-tenon  or  tongue-and-groove  joint 
is  excellent  where  neatness  and  strength  are  required. 
It  is  used  in  straight-angle  and  edge-to-edge  jointing 
also.     This  may  be  seen  by  looking  at  the  end  of  a 
bread  board  where  the  small  end  pieces  are  joined  to 
the  body  of  the  board.     The  protruding  parts  of  one 
piece  fit  exactly  into  corresponding  notches  in  the  piece 
to  which  it  is  joined.     (See  Figure  5.) 
^   Another  very  strong  joint  is  known  as  the  dovetail 
joint.     In  this  type  the  projecting  pieces  of  wood, 


WOODENWARE 


65 


C  D 

A  —  Half-and-Half  Joint.     B  and  C  —  Tenon  or  Tongue-and-GrooTe  Joint. 

D  —  Dovetail  Joint 

Figure  5.    Different  Kinds  of  Joints 

wider  at  the  tips  than  at  the  base,  fit  into  correspond- 
ing sockets.  This  is  seen  in  bread  and  cake  boards, 
but  is  not  used  so  often  as  the  mortice  and  tenon  joint. 
When  an  unusually  strong,  heavy  joint  is  required, 
wooden  pegs,  called  dowels,  are  driven  tightly  into 
auger  or  gimlet  holes  made  in  the  joints.  These  dow- 
els are  of  strong,  hard  woods,  such  as  beech,  maple, 
etc.  Over  12,000,000  feet  of  lumber  are  used  annu- 
ally in  dowel-making. 


66         HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 
Gluing 

Many  pieces  of  woodenware  are  simply  glued  to- 
gether. Good  glue,  if  properly  used,  will  unite  two 
pieces  of  wood  so  closely  that  the  fibers  will  part  before 
the  glue  will  break. 

The  secret  of  good  gluing  is  to  have  the  glue  in  per- 
fect contact  with  the  surface  to  be  united.  Dirt  and 
air  must  be  removed.  A  thin  layer  of  air,  different 
from  ordinary  atmosphere,  clings  to  the  surface  of  all 
bodies.  This  may  be  observed  by  dipping  the  wood 
into  water,  when  air  is  seen  adhering  in  the  form  of 
tiny  bubbles.  A  single  drop  of  glue  adheres  firmly  if 
rubbed  well  onto  wood. 

The  following  rules  regarding  gluing  will  not  only 
be  of  value  to  the  salesperson  in  observing  the  con- 
struction of  certain  articles,  but  will  also  enable  her  to 
offer  advice  upon  repairs. 

1.  Use  as  little  glue  as  possible.     If  the  two  pieces 

of  wood  are  separated  by  a  large  quantity  of 
glue,  the  strength  of  the  joint  depends  on  the 
glue  itself  and  not  on  the  adhesion  of  the  two 
surfaces. 

2.  Have   the   surface   absolutely    free    from   dirt, 

grease,  old  glue,  or  paint. 

3.  Spread  the  glue  evenly,  and  use  pressure  in  unit- 

ing the  two  pieces. 


WOODENWARE 


67 


4.  Keep  the  glue  sweet.     Glue  is  an  animal  prod- 

uct, made  from  the  hoofs,  bones,  and  tendons 
of  cattle,  and  will  deteriorate  unless  it  is  kept 
cool. 

5.  White  glue,  that  is,  ordinary  glue  bleached,  is 

useful  with  white  and  light-colored  woods. 

Finishes 

Many  woodenware  articles  are  natural-finished,  that 
is,  just  smoothed.  Others,  such  as  sugar  buckets, 
kitchen  cabinets  and  refrigerators,  are  stained,  and  still 
others  are  painted. 

The  object  of  paints  and  stains  is  to  preserve  the 
wood  by  closing  the  pores  or  openings  so  as  to  prevent 
moisture  and  decay  from  entering.  Paints  and  stains 
are  often  decorative. 

Paint  is  opaque  and  conceals  the  natural  appearance 
of  the  surface  of  the  wood.  It  is  more  often  used  for 
exterior  finishing. 

Stains  or  varnishes  bring  out  the  natural  grain  ap- 
pearance of  the  wood  and  are  more  decorative. 

Stains 

Stains  vary  with  different  woods.  Porous  woods, 
for  instance,  red  oak,  require  the  application  of  a  filler 
before  the  stain  is  applied.  Otherwise  too  much 
will  be  absorbed  into  the  wood. 


68 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


WOODENWARE 


Stains  are  classified  according  to  the  liquid  in  which 
they  are  dissolved,  as  spirit  stain,  which  is  dissolved 
in  alcohol,  oil  stain,  and  water  stain. 

Varnish 

Varnish  is  a  solution  of  certain  gums  or  resin  in 
alcohol  and  is  applied  after  staining  to  preserve  the 
stain  and  produce  a  shining,  transparent  surface  The 
number  of  coats  of  varnish  depends  on  the  fineness  of 
the  finish  desired. 

Paints 

Paints  are  pigments,  that  is,  coloring  matter.  The 
foundation  is  commonly  white  lead,  or  zinc  oxide, 
which  IS  ground  and  mixed  with  linseed  oil  or  other 
liquids.  Turpentine  is  added  to  make  the  paint  more 
fluid;  and  driers,  lead  or  manganese  salts,  are  dissolved 
m  the  oil  or  turpentine  to  make  it  dry  more  rapidly 

The  following  rules  regarding  the  application  of 
paint  will  be  of  use: 

1.  The  surface  must  be  thoroughly  clean  and  dry. 

2.  All  old  paint  should  be  removed. 

3.  Nail  holes,  cracks,  etc.,  must  be  filled  with  putty. 

4.  Knots  or  sappy  places  must  be  coated  to  prevent 

the  sap's  exuding  and  thereby  causing  blisters. 

5.  Thin  coats  well  distributed  are  better  than  thick 

ones. 

6.  Allow  ample  time  for  drying  between  the  coats. 


69 


Care  of  Woodenware 

In  caring  for  woodenware  articles  it  is  important  to 
clean  them  immediately  after  they  have  been  used  for 
cooking  operations.  A  chopping  bowl  is  not  only 
easier  to  clean  if  attended  to  as  soon  as  one  is  through 
using  it,  but  it  is  not  so  liable  to  absorb  odors  from  the 
food  contained.  The  following  suggestions  may  be 
helpful  in  telling  customers  how  to  care  for  unfinished 
wood,  varnished  wood,  and  painted  wood. 

In  cleaning  unfinished  wood: 

To  remove  grease,  the  commonest  stain,  wet  with 
cold  water  to  prevent  spreading,  and  scrub  with 
strong  washing  soda. 

To  bleach  when  it  has  become  darkened,  apply  a 
solution  of  oxalic  acid  ( i  teaspoon ful  to  a  cup 
of  hot  water)  to  entire  surface  with  a  brush. 
Let  dry,  and  scrub  as  usual. 

To  wash,  go  over  surface  with  wet  cloth,  scrub 
with  soap  or  fine  sand  soap,  always  with  the 
grain,  not  across  it  or  in  circular  motion. 
Rinse  with  clear  warm  water  and  wipe  dry. 
Use  as  little  water  as  possible;  if  much  is  used 
the  wood  becomes  darker  and  water-soaked. 

In  cleaning  varnished  wood :  dust,  then  clean  with  a 
soft  cloth  and  oil.  Polish  with  a  dry  cloth.  Silk  and 
chamois  are  good  for  finely  finished  woods. 


70         HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

In  cleaning  painted  wood :  use  warm  water  and  soap 
suds,  applied  with  a  cloth.  Then  rub  over  with  a  doth 
wrung  out  of  clear  water,  then  with  a  dry  cloth  If 
the  surface  is  not  dried  it  will  be  streaked.  Spots 
which  do  not  yield  may  be  scoured  with  whiting. 
Never  apply  soap  directly  to  paint. 

Tubs  or  buckets  which  have  become  very  dry  are 
not  water-tight  and  should  have  water  put  into  them 
for  some  hours  before  using. 

Woodenware  will  absorb  odors  and  fats  which  will 
be  conveyed  to  other  foods.  For  this  reason  special 
wooden  spoons  should  be  kept  for  use  with  salads  and 
not  be  used  for  cakes,  custards,  etc.  Wooden  buckets 
or  containers,  not  being  air-tight,  are  not  suitable  for 
cereals,  which  become  filled  with  weevils  unless  kept 
m  air-tight  containers. 

In  general,  woodenware  for  use  in  connection  with 
food  IS  limited  to  articles  which  can  be  made  of  noth- 
mg  else.  Usually  they  are  articles  which  would  be  too 
heavy  if  made  of  any  of  the  metals  except  aluminum, 
which  would  be  prohibitive  because  of  its  cost 


Chapter  VII 

EARTHENWARE  AND  GLASSWARE 

Varieties  of  Pottery 

Some  confusion  exists  regarding  the  different  terms 
used  in  describing  this  class  of  ware.  The  words 
earthenware,  crockery,  porcelain,  pottery,  and  china 
are  used  indiscriminately. 

The  term  pottery  is  properly  applied  to  anything 
made  of  clay  and  baked  in  a  kiln.  The  word  earthen- 
ware is  often  used  for  the  inferior  grades  of  pottery, 
distinguishing  them  from  porcelain  or  china.  Yel- 
low earthenware  is  made  of  softer  paste  and  fired 
at  a  lower  temperature  than  the  white  ware.  It  is 
cheaper  but  less  durable. 

Crockery  is  earthenware  of  any  grade,  especially 
kitchen  utensils,  made  from  baked  clay. 

China  or  porcelain  is  vitreous  ware,  differing  from 
earthenware  in  being  more  or  less  translucent,  and  in 
its  superior  whiteness  and  hardness. 

Earthenware  Articles 

In  this  section  of  the  department  are  found : 

71 


72  HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


Baking  dishes 
Casseroles 
Ramekins 
Bean  pots 
Teapots 


Pitchers 

Jugs 

Jars 

Bowls 

Nappies 


Characteristics  of  the  Ware 

A  feature  which  has  made  these  articles  popular  for 
bakmg  dishes  is  their  quality  of  retaining  heat.  They 
are  therefore  useful  when  preparing  foods  which  re- 
quire a  long,  slow  baking.  Foods  prepared  in  them 
keep  warm  longer  than  in  metal  dishes. 

Another  advantage  is  that  food  prepared  in  these 
dishes  can  be  placed  on  the  table  in  the  same  dish  in 
which  it  is  baked. 

Pottery  imparts  no  taste  to  food  prepared  in  it,  un- 
less it  is  chipped  or  crackled. 

Earthenware  is  not  impervious  to  air,  and  therefore 
crackers,  for  instance,  will  become  soft  if  kept  in  it. 

Materials  of  Which  It  Is  Made 

The  materials  for  pottery  are  very  common,  being 
clay,  feldspar,  and  flint  in  varied  proportions  according 
to  the  article  to  be  produced. 

^  After  the  clay  has  been  removed  from  the  claybank 
It  is  allowed  to  age  for  some  time.  It  is  said  that 
Chmese  potters  use  the  clay  which  their  grandfathers 
have  prepared,  and  that  they  in  turn  prepare  clay  for 


EARTHENWARE  AND  GLASSWARE  73 

their  grandchildren.     The  modern  process,  however, 
continues  for  days,  weeks,  or  months  only. 

Molding 

The  clay  is  first  molded  into  the  desired  shape,  either 
by  hand  or  by  machine,  and  then  left  to  dry  for  some 
time. 

Baking  or  Firing 

When  the  articles  are  dry  they  are  put  into  fur- 
naces, called  kilns,  to  be  **  fired."  The  better  ware  is 
packed  in  "  saggers,"  or  containers,  made  of  fire  clay, 
to  protect  them  from  stains,  warping,  and  cracking. 
The  common  ware  is  often  piled  up  in  the  oven  of  the 
kiln  without  covering. 

The  kiln  is  really  a  huge  brick  chimney  with  a  floor. 
When  the  kiln  has  been  filled  with  the  ware  it  is 
bricked  up  and  fires  lighted  underneath.  These  are 
low  at  first,  but  gradually  become  hotter  until  the 
degree  of  heat  required  for  the  kind  of  article  being 
made  is  reached.  Then  the  fires  are  checked  and  the 
kiln  gradually  cooled ;  usually  about  two  days  are  al- 
lowed for  this  cooling.  Then  the  kiln  is  opened  and 
the  ware  removed.  It  is  now  in  what  is  called  the 
"  biscuit "  stage,  rough,  and  without  glaze. 

After  careful  inspection  the  ware  is  smoothed  and 
any  lettering,  stamping,  decorations,  or  trade-marks 
are  applied. 


74         HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

Glazing 

The  articles  are  next  clipped  into  a  glaze  and  allowed 
to  dry,  and  then  once  more  packed  in  "  saggers  "  and 
fired.  While  the  temperature  is  not  so  great  this  time 
as  at  the  first  firing,  it  is  great  enough  to  fuse  the 
glaze  with  the  body  of  the  ware,  so  that  the  ware  and 
glaze  are  one,  not  simply  pottery  with  a  coating  of 
glaze. 

The  glaze  on  yellow  ware  and  some  other  forms  of 
crockery  is  fused  on  in  the  first  firing. 

History  of  Pottery 

The  baking  of  clay  to  form  pottery  ranks  among 
the  oldest  arts.  When  ancient  tombs  are  opened,  or 
other  traces  of  vanished  civilizations  are  found,  pieces 
of  baked  clay  are  almost  always  discovered. 

Ancient  Egypt  was^ probably  the  first  nation  to  de- 
velop this  art,  and  theWjieces  of  both  glazed  and  un- 
glazed  pottery  are  found  in  a  state  of  perfect  preser- 
vation, but  all  the  great  nations  of  antiquity  were 
proficient  in  pottery-making. 

The  Bible  refers  many  times  to  pottery. 

In  medieval  times  both  glazed  and  unglazed  pottery 
were  made  as  early  as  the  twelfth  century  in  Italy,  and 
England  doubtless  learned  the  trade  from  European 
workmen.  The  English  development  of  the  art  has 
been  noted  throughout  the  world  for  its  beauty  and 
superiority. 


EARTHENWARE  AND  GLASSWARE 


75 


In  America  no  pottery  works  were  established  be- 
fore the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  —  about  1790; 
and  until  then  the  necessary  supply  had  been  imported 
from  Europe.  Rapid  development  has  taken  place  in 
the  manufacture  of  American-made  ware,  which  now 
has  a  recognized  standing  in  workmanship,  design, 
and  service.  Purchasers  find  that  American-made 
ware  is  always  easily  obtained  and  that  they  do  not 
have  to  wait  for  shipments  from  Europe. 


Glassware  Articles 
In  this  section  are  found 

Baking  dishes 
Containers 
Measuring  glasses 
Cream  whippers 


Fruit  jars 
Jelly  tumblers 
Lemon  squeezers 
Rolling  pins 


Preparation  of  Glass 

The  manual  for  the  "  Glassware  Department  "  gives 
a  complete  description  of  the  process  of  glass-making, 
to  which  the  reader  is  referred  for  information  on  this 
subject. 

Fruit  jars  and  jelly  glasses,  as  well  as  containers, 
are  made  of  bottle  glass.  They  are  often  tinged  with 
green,  due  to  the  presence  of  iron  in  the  sand. 

The  glass  baking  dish,  however,  is  of  a  different 
composition.    Borax  is  used  in  its  manufacture  to  give 


76         HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

it  the  power  to  withstand  oven  heat  without  cracking 
or  melting.  The  borax  produces  a  **  low  expansion 
glass/'  that  is,  one  which  does  not  expand  much  with 
heat. 

Merits  of  Glassware 

No  other  substance  is  as  satisfactory  as  glass  for 
preserve  jars,  etc.  The  requirement  for  these  pur- 
poses  is  an  air-tight  receptacle,  which  is  not  affected  by 
acids.  Glass  is  ideal  in  both  these  respects.  Hydro- 
fluoric acid  is  the  only  acid  which  will  affect  glass  and 
this  is  never  present  in  any  food. 

The  special  glass  baking  dishes  have  the  advan- 
tage of  being  very  attractive,  and  food  may  be  served 
directly  from  the  dishes.  They  do  not  "  crackle,"  nor 
absorb  flavors,  and  are  very  easy  to  clean. 

The  transparency  of  glass  makes  it  convenient  for 
storing  foods.  One  can  see  at  a  glance  the  amount 
and  nature  of  the  contents. 


Chapter  VIII 

COMPARISON  OF  MATERIALS  FOR 
COOKING  UTENSILS 

Essentials  for  Cooking  Utensils 

No  one  material  is  suitable  for  all  cooking  utensils. 
The  purpose  for  which  the  article  is  to  be  used  and  the 
amount  which  the  customer  is  willing  to  pay  are  im- 
portant factors  in  determining  the  kind  of  ware  to  be 
recommended. 

There  are,  however,  four  points  which  should  al- 
ways be  considered  in  every  purchase  of  this  kind : 

1.  Safety  from  poisonous  compounds. 

2.  The  ease  with  which  it  is  cleaned. 

3.  Economy  in  fuel. 

4.  Durability. 

Safety 

Safety  for  all  kinds  of  food  is  found  in : 
Aluminum  Enameled  ware 

Glassware  Earthenware 

Safety  for  foods  without  acids  in : 
Iron  Tinned  ware 

77 


78  HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

Copper  receptacles  may  be  used  for  boiling  water, 
but  not  for  cooking  acid  foods. 

Aluminum  has  suffered  many  unjust  criticisms  based 
upon  the  false  notion  that  it  forms  poisonous  com- 
pounds when  in  contact  with  acids  and  certain  foods. 
Exhaustive  chemical  experiments  have  disproved  this 
entirely. 

Teapots  and  preserving  kettles  for  cooking  acid 
vegetables  and  fruits  should  not  be  made  of  uncoated 
iron  or  of  tinned  ware. 

Ease  of  Cleaning 

The  ease  with  which  the  various  wares  may  be 
cleaned  depends  upon  the  smoothness  of  their  surfaces. 
Food  clings  more  readily  to  rough  than  to  glazed  sur- 
faces.    The  easiest  to  clean  are : 

Glassware 
Earthenware 
Enameled  ware 

Earthenware,  however,  crackles.  This  is  a  disad- 
vantage because  food  particles  and  flavors  lodge  in  the 
tiny  cracks  and  not  only  discolor  the  ware  but  flavor 
the  food.  This  condition  makes  earthenware  vessels 
unfit  to  use  for  cooking. 

Iron  ware  is  the  most  difficult  to  keep  clean. 

Economy  of  Fuel 
The  saving  in  fuel  which  may  be  made  by  using  one 


COMPARISON  OF  MATERIALS 


79 


utensil  rather  than  another  depends  upon  the  rate  at 
which  the  material  of  which  the  utensil  is  made  con- 
ducts the  heat.  In  general,  metals  are  good  conductors 
of  heat,  but  some  conduct  it  faster  than  others. 

Materials  arranged  in  their  order  of  conductivity 
of  heat  are  as  follows : 


6.  Tin 

7.  Iron 

8.  Porcelain 

9.  Glass  (ordinary) 
10.  Water 


1.  Silver 

2.  Copper 

3.  Gold 

4.  Aluminum 

5.  Brass 

This  table  shows  why  good  kettles  and  boilers  often 
have  copper  bottoms,  and  why  aluminum  is  so  success- 
ful as  a  cooking  utensil.  If  three  utensils  made  of 
copper,  aluminum,  and  iron  respectively  are  of  the 
same  size  and  thickness,  the  copper  one  will  conduct 
seven  times  as  much  heat  and  the  aluminum  one  four 
times  as  much  as  the  iron  one  in  the  same  time  from 
the  same  fire. 

Therefore,  if  it  is  desired  to  cook  rapidly,  as  in 
jelly-making,  when  quick  evaporation  is  desirable,  it  is 
more  economical  and  satisfactory  to  use  an  aluminum 
utensil  than  an  enameled  one. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  a  long,  slow  cooking  at  a  low 
temperature  is  desired,  as  in  casserole  cooking,  porce- 
lain or  glass,  which  are  poor  conductors  of  heat,  are 
better  than  aluminum.     The  aluminum  ware  conducts 


11 


8o  HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

the  heat  so  rapidly  that  the  flavors  are  lacking  which 
would  have  been  brought  out  by  slower  baking. 
Moreover,  when  glass  or  earthenware  dishes  are  once 
thoroughly  heated,  they  transfer  a  constant  steady  vol- 
ume of  heat  to  their  contents  for  a  number  of  hours, 
even  after  the  fire  has  been  turned  off. 

Because  of  the  greater  conductivity  of  heat  in  alu- 
minum, sugar,  milk,  rice,  and  other  easily  scorched 
foods  may  be  prepared  in  an  aluminum  utensil  with 
less  danger  of  burning  than  in  one  of  iron  or  enameled 
ware. 

It  is  necessary  also  to  consider  the  melting  point  of 
the  various  metals  in  connection  with  the  cooking  op- 
erations in  which  they  are  to  be  used. 

Iron  melts  at  3279°  F. 
Copper  melts  at  2000°  F. 
Aluminum  melts  at  1215°  F- 
Tin  melts  at  442°  F. 

Tin,  therefore,  is  not  suitable  for  the  highest  tem- 
perature, such  as  that  necessary  for  frying.  Iron  or 
aluminum  can  stand  this  temperature  without  danger. 

Durability 

The  durability  of  cooking  utensils  depends  largely 
upon  whether  they  will  break  or  otherwise  disintegrate. 

Aluminum  is  undoubtedly  the  most  durable,  since  it 
neither  melts  nor  rusts. 


COMPARISON  OF  MATERIALS 


81 


Iron  will  not  melt  at  cooking  temperatures,  but  will 
rust  unless  properly  cared  for. 

Tinned  ware  melts  at  comparatively  low  tempera- 
tures, and  rusts  if  the  tin  is  scratched  off. 

The  enamel  coating  of  enameled  ware  will  crack  off. 

Woodenware  warps  and  cracks  when  water  is  al- 
lowed to  stand  in  it. 

Earthenware  and  glassware  are  easily  cracked  by 
sudden  blows  and  falls.  Earthenware  crackles  under 
high  temperatures. 

Neither  earthenware  nor  glassware  is  suitable  for 
cooking  on  the  top  of  the  stove,  where  heat  is  applied 
to  one  part  of  the  utensil  only,  and  thus  expands  it 
unevenly.  In  the  oven  the  heat  is  more  nearly  uni- 
form. 


i 


X 


UTENSILS  FOR  COOKING 


83 


Part  II  -Cooking  and  Cleaning 

Implements 

Chapter  IX 

UTENSILS  FOR  COOKING 
Knowledge  of  the  Elements  of  Cookery  Essential 

In  order  to  understand  the  merits  of  different  shapes 
and  styles  of  cooking  utensils  and  to  be  able  to  advise 
customers  upon  purchases,  the  saleswoman  should  be 
fam>l.ar  with  the  fundamental  principles  of  cookery 

According  to  the  cooking  purposes  for  which  they 
are  used,  there  are  utensils  for ; 

Broiling,  roasting,  baking;  in  which  heat  is  ap- 
phed  by  means  of  heated  surfaces. 

Boiling,  braising,  stewing,  steaming;  in  which 
heat  IS  applied  by  means  of  water. 

Frying,  sauteing;  in  which  heat  is  applied  bv 
means  of  fat. 

Broiling 

The  simplest  method  of  cooking  meat  is  by  roast- 
mg  or  broiling  before  a  fire.     This  can  be  done  out  of 

82 


doors  with  no  utensil  at  all  except  a  pointed  stick  on 
which  the  meat  is  spitted.  In  an  ordinary  kitchen  only 
thin  cuts  of  meat  are  cooked  in  this  way.  In  hotels 
and  restaurants  fowls  and  larger  cuts  are  roasted  in 
the  same  way  by  means  of  tin  kitchens. 

This  method  when  applied  to  slices  of  bread  is 
known  as  toasting. 

Utensils  for  Broiling 

True  broiling  is  the  subjection  of  food  to  the  direct 
heat  of  a  fire  without  the  use  of  water,  fat,  or  a  heated 
surface. 

The  utensils  used  in  broiling  are: 

Wire  broilers  or  toasters 

Wire  racks  set  on  feet  over  a  pan 

The  simple,  hinged,  double  wire  broilers,  made  of 
heavy  tinned  wire,  or  sometimes  of  steel  wire,  are  used 
over  a  wood  or  coal  fire ;  the  meat  or  fish  is  held  over 
the  fire,  which  must  be  red  hot  to  prevent  coal  gas  from 
getting  into  the  meat,  and  any  fat  or  moisture  in  it 
allowed  to  fall  into  the  flame.  Broiling  above  the  fire 
causes  frequent  jets  of  flame  whenever  the  fat  falls 
upon  the  coals  and  this  sears  or  bums  the  surface. 
Many  people  prefer  meat  which  has  been  charred  in 
this  way.     These  broilers  are  often  called  gridirons. 

The  same  style  of  wire  toasters  are  used  for  toasting 


i    <• 


84  HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

bread  over  the  coals.     These  are  usually  lighter  weight 
than  the  broilers. 

When  gas  or  electricity  is  used  in  cooking  meats  the 
fat  must  not  be  allowed  to  fall  on  the  fire.  The  food 
is  therefore  suspended  in  front  of  the  flame  or  placed 
beneath  it,  and  the  fat  is  caught  in  a  pan  known  as  a 
dripping  pan.  Baking  pans  of  Russia  iron  or  enam- 
eled ware  are  the  best  for  this  purpose. 

When  bread  is  to  be  toasted  over  a  gas,  gasoline,  or 
oil  flame,  a  four-sided  toaster,  upon  which  slices'  of 
bread  stand  upright,  is  excellent.  This  construction 
distributes  the  heat  evenly  and  produces  a  uniformly 
browned  toast.  By  regulating  the  heat  one  can  obtain 
a  crisp  toast  with  a  moist  center,  or  a  thoroughly  dry 

Electric  toasters  are  a  specialty  and  are  used  on  the 
table. 

A  process  known  as  pan  broiling  is  done  in  a  hot, 
dry  pan.  The  effect  is  very  different  from  true  broil^ 
ing,  as  the  fat  and  juices  of  the  meat  ooze  out  and  half 
fry  it.  The  utensils  used  for  this  method  are  frying 
pans  or  skillets,  which  are  discussed  later  in  the  chan- 
ter. ^ 

Roasting  and  Baking 

Roasting  and  baking  are  ordinarily  done  in  an  oven 
by  means  of  heat  radiated  from  its  four  sides;  the 
oven  is  heated  by  a  fire  box.     For  meats  the  process  is 


UTENSILS  FOR  COOKING 


85 


known  as  roasting;  for  vegetables,  fruits,  and  batter 
foods,  as  baking. 

Roasting 

Roasting  is  the  best  method  of  preparing  large  cuts 
of  meat  as  it  preserves  the  juices  and  develops  a  fine 
flavor.  The  object  is  to  form  the  hardened  outer  layer 
immediately.  Meats  need  a  very  hot  oven  at  first,  and 
therefore  the  utensils  are  of  materials  like  iron,  which 
will  stand  high  temperatures  well. 

Utensils  for  Roasting 

The  utensils  used  for  roasting  in  an  oven  are : 

Roasting  pans 

Self -basting  roasters 

Roasting  pans  are  made  of  Russia  iron  or  enameled 
ware,  and  may  be  provided  with  a  wire  rack  upon 
which  to  set  the  meat.  They  should  be  fairly  heavy, 
for  a  thin  pan  is  apt  to  buckle  and  cause  the  water 
used  in  basting  the  roast  to  collect  at  one  end  while 
the  other  smokes.  The  wire  racks  may  be  used  for 
cake  coolers  also. 

Self 'hasting  roasters  are  very  popular.  They  are 
made  of  enameled  ware  or  aluminum,  and  provided 
with  a  tight-fitting  cover.  The  steam  rising  from  the 
meat  condenses  on  the  cover  and  falls  back  over  the 
meat  and  bastes  it.     Cheap  cuts  can  be  made  tender  in 


86  HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

these  roasters.     The  round  and  oval-shaped  ones  are 
more  easily  cleaned  than  the  square-cornered  ones. 

In  selling  large  roasting  pans  of  either  type,  it  is 
well  to  ask  the  customer  the  measurements  of  her 
oven.  People  do  not  carry  an  accurate  mental  picture 
of  sizes  and  the  pan  selected  may  be  too  large  and  have 
to  be  exchanged. 

Tin  kitchens  are  used  in  hotels  to  roast  or  broil  with- 
out an  oven.  The  meat  is  put  on  a  revolving  spit  and 
slowly  turned  before  the  open  flame.  This  method  is 
much  used  in  Europe.  The  flavor  developed  is  very 
fine. 

Baking 

Foods  consisting  of  a  mixture  of  flour  or  meal,  with 
a  liquid  and  some  "  raising  "  material,  such  as  eggs, 
yeast,  baking  powder,  or  soda,  may  be  in  the  form  of  : 

Dough  (biscuits,  bread,  pie  crust) 

Thick  batter  (muffins,  cakes) 

Thin  batter  (popovers,  waffles,  pancakes) 

The  lightness  of  foods  made  from  batter  depends 
upon  the  amount  of  gas  or  air  enclosed.  This  is  de- 
rived from  the  eggs,  yeast,  baking  powder,  or  soda  en- 
closed by  beating.  Heat  causes  the  gas  to  escape  and 
as  the  bubbles  rise  the  food  rises  with  it.  The  mois- 
ture contained  in  the  food  is  changed  into  steam  and 
the  food  becomes  dry. 


UTENSILS  FOR  COOKING 

Utensils  for  Baking 

The  utensils  used  for  baking  are: 


87 


Baking  pans 
Bread  pans 
Pie  plates 
Layer-cake  pans 
Loaf -cake  pans 
Muffin  pans 


Angel-cake  or  tubed  pans 

Pudding  dishes 

Patty  pans 

Bean  pots 

Casseroles 

Ramekins 


Bread  pans  are  made  of  Russia  iron,  aluminum, 
tinned  ware,  enameled  ware,  or  glass.  Those  which 
have  the  top  edge  wired  are  stronger.  If  the  bottom 
is  slightly  rounded  they  are  not  so  difficult  to  keep 
clean.  They  are  usually  sold  in  sets  of  two  or  three. 
They  may  also  be  used  as  loaf -cake  pans. 

Double  bread  pans  are  provided  with  a  cover  which 
catches,  and  the  pans  thus  entirely  enclose  the  loaf. 
These  are  made  of  sheet  steel  and  of  tinned  ware. 

Pie  plates,  usually  plain,  but  sometimes  scalloped 
for  fancy  pastry,  vary  in  depth  from  very  shallow  to 
deep.  The  average  size  is  10  inches  in  diameter. 
They  are  made  of  enameled  ware,  tinned  ware,  alu- 
minum, glass,  or  earthenware.  Those  of  enameled 
ware  have  been  found  especially  good  for  baking  juicy 
pies. 

Layer-cake  pans  are  shallow  pans,  either  round, 
square,  or  oblong  with  straighter  sides  than  pie  plates. 
They  are  made  of  tinned  or  enameled  ware.     The 


88 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


lighter  weight  of  tinned  ware  is  preferable  to  other  ma- 
terials for  cake-making,  because  the  heavier  materials 
retain  too  much  heat  and  cause  the  cake  to  burn  easily. 

The  very  shallow  styles  are  often  called  jelly-cake 
pans,  because  these  cakes  must  be  thin  to  roll  well. 

Some  layer-cake  pans  have  removable  bottoms,  so 
that  the  cake  may  be  taken  from  the  pans  with  less 
danger  of  crumbling. 

Loaf -cake  pans  are  rather  deep  pans  made  of  tinned 
ware,  enameled  ware,  aluminum,  or  glass.  They  are 
round,  square,  oval,  or  oblong,  plain  or  scalloped.  Ob- 
long loaves  of  cake  can  sometimes  be  cut  to  better  ad- 
vantage in  serving,  but  many  cooks  maintain  that  it  is 
more  difficult  to  obtain  a  well-baked  oblong  loaf  than  a 
round  or  square  one,  where  the  "  pull "  between  the 
batter  and  the  sides  of  the  pan  is  equally  strong  at 
all  points.  Loaf-cake  pans  should  be  used  for  pound 
cake. 

Muffin  pans  come  in  groups  of  six,  eight,  nine,  or 
twelve  cups  on  a  frame.  The  cups  are  plain  or  scal- 
loped and  vary  in  size.  They  are  sometimes  sold  sepa- 
rately and  unmounted.  They  are  made  of  cast  iron, 
aluminum,  enameled,  and  tinned  ware.  The  cast  iron 
ones  are  often  long  and  trough-shaped  instead  of  cup- 
shaped.  These  pans  are  used  for  small  cakes  and  pop- 
overs  also.  The  size  of  the  family  usually  determines 
the  number  of  cups,  but  often  when  other  food  is  being 
cooked  in  the  oven  at  the  same  time  two  six-cup  pans 


UTENSILS  FOR  COOKING 


89 


will  be  found  more  convenient  to  arrange  than  one 
twelve-cup  pan. 

Pans  of  a  special  shape  are  maae  for  baking  lady 
fingers. 

Angel'Cake  or  tubed-cake  pans  are  deep,  round, 
plain  or  scalloped  pans  with  tubes  in  the  center  through 
which  the  heat  of  the  oven  rises  and  expands  the  air 
bubbles  in  the  batter  at  the  middle  of  the  cake.  They 
produce  a  very  level,  evenly  baked  cake,  because  the 
heat  reaches  the  center  of  the  cake  as  soon  as  any  other 
part  and  because  the  "  pull  *'  between  the  metal  and  the 
batter  is  more  even  than  in  any  other  style  of  pan. 

Pudding  pans  or  baking  pans  come  in  various  sizes 
and  depths,  both  oval  and  round.  They  are  made  of 
tinned  ware,  aluminum,  enameled  ware,  and  glass. 

Patty  pans,  for  baking  fancy  cakes,  or  for  use  as 
molds,  are  made  in  a  great  variety  of  shapes,  round, 
oval  and  fancy,  of  tinned,  enameled,  or  aluminum 
ware. 

Casseroles  are  unsurpassed  for  baking  various  kinds 
of  food  to  be  served  from  the  cooking  dish.  They  are 
made  of  earthenware  in  brown,  blue,  green  or  yellow ; 
vitrified  china,  glass,  or  aluminum.  Glass  is  very  at- 
tractive and  may  be  used  for  baking  either  bread  or 
cake.  Earthenware  is  the  most  popular  material. 
Aluminum  ones  are  attractive,  but  it  is  impossible  to 
cook  slowly  in  them. 

The  requirements  of  all  casseroles  are  that  they  have 


90  HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

a  tight-fitting  cover  for  long  cooking  in  a  slow  oven, 
and  that  the  material  does  not  crack  or  craze.  If  the 
surface  glaze  is  broken,  food  lodges  in  the  tiny  cracks 
and  the  casserole  is  no  longer  fit  to  use. 

Pottery,  glass,  or  china  casseroles,  before  they  are 
used  for  the  first  time,  should  be  soaked  in  cold  water 
and  then  boiled.  This  toughens  and  hardens  them. 
The  risk  of  breakage  declines  with  use.  They  should 
not  be  placed  on  the  stove  or  in  the  oven  without  hav- 
ing water  or  fat  in  them.  They  should  not  be  placed 
in  cold  water,  or  on  cold  surfaces,  such  as  a  wet  sink, 
while  hot,  because  they  are  likely  to  crack. 

Boiling 

BoiHng  is  perhaps  the  simplest  process  of  cooking 
vegetables  and  is  an  excellent  way  of  cooking  meat. 
The  food  is  put  into  boiling  water  (water  boils  at  212° 
F.)  and  kept  there  until  cooked. 

Vegetables,  especially  potatoes,  and  green  vegeta- 
bles, need  actively  boiling  water,  else  they  are  apt  to 
become  water-soaked. 

Meat,  on  the  other  hand,  should  have  little  real  boil- 
ing. Meat  is  largely  protein,  or  albumin,  a  class  of 
food  distinguished  from  starches,  fats,  and  mineral 
substances.  This  protein  is  coagulated,  i.e.,  hardened 
or  made  firm,  by  heat.  Real  boiling  over-coagulates 
the  protein  and  makes  it  indigestible,  but  simmering  at 
a  lower  temperature  softens  the  fibers.     In  cooking 


UTENSILS  FOR  COOKING 


91 


meat,  therefore,  it  should  be  boiled  rapidly  at  first  for 
about  five  minutes  to  coagulate  the  albumin  on  the  sur- 
face and  to  make  a  water-proof  casing  to  hold  the 
juices  in  the  meat.  The  rest  of  the  process  should  be 
at  a  moderate  heat.  Salted  meats,  such  as  ham  or 
corned  beef,  should  be  soaked  first  to  remove  the  ex- 
cess salt. 

Soup-making  is  quite  different,  however.  The  proc- 
ess must  extract  as  much  juice  as  possible  from  the 
meat.  The  meat  is  therefore  cut  into  small  pieces, 
covered  with  cold  water,  and  brought  gradually  to  a 
slowly  boiling  temperature. 


Stewing 

The  stewing  process  for  cooking  meats  is  intermedi- 
ate between  boiling  and  soup-making.  Its  success 
depends  on  a  thorough  coagulation  of  the  outside 
of  the  meat  and  a  slow  finishing  cooking.  The  tem- 
perature should  never  exceed  180°  F.  The  meat 
should  be  cut  into  small  pieces,  thrown  into  a  kettle 
containing  a  small  amount  of  hot  fat,  and  cooked  until 
the  surface  is  thoroughly  coagulated.  A  thickening 
of  flour  mixed  with  water  is  added,  and  the  whole 
brought  to  a  boil.  It  is  then  allowed  to  simmer  for 
several  hours.  This  is  an  economical  method  of  pre- 
paring cheap  cuts,  which  become  tender  and  digestible 
in  the  process. 


92 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


Utensils  for  Boiling  and  Stewing 
The  utensils  used  for  boiling  and  stewing  are: 

Teakettles  Coffee-pots 

Kettles  of  all  kinds  Coffee  percolators 

Saucepans  Teapots 
Stewpans 

Teakettles  are  used  only  for  boiling  water.  They 
usually  have  a  wide  base.  However,  a  deep,  pot- 
shaped  style  is  sometimes  sold  for  use  on  a  coal  range, 
where  the  kettle  may  fit  down  into  the  stove  hole.  As 
they  are  usually  rather  heavy  when  full,  the  handle  is 
in  the  shape  of  a  bail  which  distributes  the  weight 
evenly.  The  bail  is  usually  protected  at  its  central 
part  where  the  hand  comes,  by  a  wooden  cylindrical 
covering,  since  wood  does  not  conduct  heat  so  rapidly 
as  metal.  Sometimes  coiled  wire  is  used  for  this  cen- 
tral section,  as  heat  takes  longer  to  pass  through  the 
coils  than  through  a  straight  piece  of  metal  and  thus 
becomes  lost. 

The  spout  is  curved  to  prevent  the  water  from 
splashing  when  it  is  boiling  and  is  placed  at  the  bottom 
of  the  kettle  to  insure  easy  pouring. 

The  covers  are  small,  as  no  foods  are  cooked  in. 
these  kettles,  and  the  water  can  be  poured  in  through 
a  small  opening.  They  should  be  large  enough,  how- 
ever, to  admit  of  cleaning. 

Double  boiler  insets  are  provided  with  some  teaket- 


UTENSILS  FOR  COOKING 


93 


ties.  This  is  a  fuel-saving  device,  as  water  can  be 
boiled  in  the  lower  part  while  food  is  cooked  above. 

Teakettles  are  made  of  aluminum,  enameled  ware, 
cast  iron,  nickel-plated  copper,  and  tinned  ware. 
Those  of  tinned  ware  often  have  copper  bottoms,  be- 
cause copper  conducts  the  heat  so  rapidly.  In  sizes 
teakettles  range  from  four  to  seven  quarts.  Six 
quarts  is  the  size  for  the  average  family. 

Kettles  or  pots  for  other  uses  are  known  under  a 
great  many  names.  They  come  in  a  variety  of  sizes 
and  shapes  and  are  made  of  enameled  ware,  alumi- 
num, tinned  ware,  and  cast  iron.  The  cast  iron  and 
tinned  ware  ones  should  not  be  used  for  cooking  acid 
foods. 

Preserving  kettle  is  the  name  applied  to  the  deep, 
wide-topped,  bailed  shapes.  They  are  usually  lipped 
on  one  or  both  sides.  A  projecting  ear  on  the  side 
opposite  the  lip  is  a  convenience  in  steadying  the  ket- 
tle when  pouring  from  it.  Preserve  kettles  usually 
come  without  covers,  though  separate  ones  may  be 
easily  fitted  to  them. 

Berlin  kettles  are  those  with  roimded  rather  than 
straight  or  flaring  sides.  These  also  have  bail  handles 
in  the  large  sizes,  but  the  smaller  ones  often  have  ear 
handles  on  opposite  sides.  These  kettles  usually  have 
covers. 

Windsor  kettles  are  those  with  straight  flaring  sides. 
They  usually  come  with  covers. 


'  '1 


94  HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

Soup  kettles,  stock  pots,  or  stove  pots  are  various 
names  given  to  large  straight-sided  kettles  used  for 
cooking  large  quantities  of  any  kind  of  food.  They 
are  usually  covered. 

Fish  kettles  are  long,  narrow,  deep,  covered  ket- 
tles for  boiling  fish  whole. 

Ham  boilers  are  oval,  large,  deep,  covered  kettles 
for  boiling  a  ham  whole. 

Asparagus  boilers,  also  called  corn  boilers,  are  ob- 
long and  deep  and  hold  bunches  of  asparagus  or  ears 
of  corn  to  better  advantage  than  a  round-shaped  kettle. 

Saucepans  and  stewpans  are  made  of  tinned  ware, 
enameled  ware,  or  aluminum,  have  a  projecting  han- 
dle, a  lip  for  pouring  on  one  or  both  sides,  straight, 
flaring,  or  rounded  sides,  and  may  be  covered  or  un- 
covered. They  come  in  a  number  of  sizes  ranging 
from  one  to  five  quarts.  They  are  used  for  cooking 
small  amounts  of  foods  such  as  gravies,  sauces,  or 
vegetables.  Many  cooks  like  them  for  mixing  cakes 
and  batters,  as  they  are  lighter  than  crockery  or 
earthenware  and  the  handle  is  convenient  to  help  hold 
the  utensil  when  creaming  butter. 

Wide,  shallow,  tightly  covered  saucepans  should  be 
used  for  cooking  foods  needing  a  small  amount  of 
water;  deep,  uncovered  ones  for  strong-juiced  vege- 
tables like  cabbage  which  require  a  large  amount  of 
water.     For  candy-making,  aluminum  pans  are  good, 


UTENSILS  FOR  COOKING 


95 


because  the  heat  is  conducted  so  fast  that  the  sugar 
rarely  scorches  and  also  because  the  smooth  inside 
surface  makes  it  easy  to  keep  the  sides  wiped  free  from 
sugar  crystals. 

Berlin  saucepans  are  similar  in  shape  to  Berlin  kef- 
ties,  and  Windsor  saucepans  to  Windsor  kettles,  except 
that  they  have  the  projecting  handles  instead  of  bail 
handles. 

Double  or  triple  saucepans  consist  of  sets  of  two  or 
three  covered  pans  so  shaped  as  to  fit  over  one  burner 
or  hole  in  a  stove.  They  are  a  fuel-saving  device,  as 
two  or  three  kinds  of  food  may  be  cooked  with  one 
blaze. 

Covers  of  aluminum,  enameled,  or  tinned  ware  are 
sold  separately  for  use  with  kettles  or  saucepans  which 
are  not  provided  with  them,  or  to  replace  old  ones. 
They  come  in  several  sizes  ranging  from  about  8  to 
II  inches  in  diameter.  Sets  of  assorted  sizes  in  wire 
racks  are  also  sold.  In  fitting  covers  to  pans  the 
measurement  should  be  taken  inside  the  flange  of  the 
cover,  not  from  rim  to  rim. 

Ladles  and  dippers  are  long-handled  bowl-  or  cup- 
shaped  utensils  used  for  dipping  up  and  pouring  liquids. 
As  dippers  are  used  principally  for  dipping  water,  for 
example  in  the  laundry,  and  the  ladles  for  foods,  as 
preserves,  soups,  etc.,  the  ladles  are  smaller,  and  hold 
about  a  cupful.     It  is  important  that  the  handles  be 


96  HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

strong  and  that  the  length  be  adapted  to  their  use. 
Both  dippers  and  ladles  are  made  of  tinned  and 
enameled  ware. 

Coffee-pots  are  made  in  three  styles: 

Pots  for  boiling 
Drip  pots,  or  biggins 
Percolators 

The  pots  in  which  coffee  is  boiled  are  deep,  holding 
from  I  to  4  quarts ;  larger  sizes  are  sometimes  called 
coffee  boilers.  The  spout,  which  often  has  a  strainer 
on  the  inside,  is  stubby  and  placed  at  the  top  of  the  pot 
so  that  the  grounds  will  not  get  into  it  during  the  boil- 
ing process.  This  style  of  pot  should  be  sold  to  those 
who  drink  substitutes  for  coffee,  since  these  require 
hard  boiling.  These  pots  are  made  of  enameled  ware, 
tinned  ware,  aluminum,  and  nickel-plated  copper. 

In  the  drip  pots  or  in  the  biggins  the  pulverized  cof- 
fee is  put  into  a  bag  or  receptacle  in  the  top  of  the  pot 
and  hot  water  poured  through  it.  This  arrangement 
originated  in  France. 

The  percolator  is  a  later  invention  upon  the  same 
principle.  Finely  ground  coffee  is  placed  in  a  recep- 
tacle at  the  top.  A  tube  leads  from  the  bottom  of  the 
pot  up  through  this  receptacle.  When  the  water  is  suf- 
ficiently hot  it  rises  through  the  tube,  strikes  the  cover, 
spreads  over  the  coffee,  and  percolates  through  it. 


UTENSILS  FOR  COOKING 


97 


Coffee  owes  its  refreshing  properties  to  the  presence 
of  three  substances : 

Caffeine,  i  to  two  per  cent 
Volatile  oils  (the  aroma),  a  trace 
Caffeo-tannic  and  caffeic  acids 

These  substances  are  extracted  by  boiling.  When 
coffee  is  prepared  by  the  drip  or  percolator  method  the 
hot  water  takes  up  the  volatile  oils,  which  produce  the 
delicious  aroma  of  coffee,  and  the  caffeine;  and  the 
bitter  acids  — the  most  injurious  ingredients,  which 
attack  the  lining  of  the  stomach  — are  left  in  the 
grounds. 

Percolators  are  very  decorative  utensils  and  are  often 
sold  in  other  departments  than  the  Housefumishings 
Department.  They  are  made  of  enameled  ware,  alum- 
inum, nickel,  silver,  or  copper,  and  are  designed  for  use 
with  coal,  gas,  alcohol,  or  electricity.  Their  bases  are 
sometimes  wide  and  flat,  sometimes  narrow  and 
curved  and  their  handles  are  of  wood  or  porcelain; 
wood  is  a  poorer  conductor  of  heat  than  porcelain.' 
Pieces  of  horn  or  ivory  are  sometimes  inserted  between 
the  metal  and  the  wood  in  the  handle,  as  these  mate- 
rials are  extremely  poor  conductors  of  heat. 

Glass  tops  of  percolators  are  also  sold  separately. 

Teapots  are  here  grouped  with  boiling  utensils, 
though  tea  should  never  be  boiled.     Boiling  extracts 


I 


m 


98 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


the  thein  and  the  tannin  contained  in  tea,  and  these  sub- 
stances afifect  the  nerves. 

Teapots  are  made  of  china,  earthenware,  aluminum, 
enameled  ware,  or  silver.  Many  are  fitted  with  re- 
movable tea-balls,  or  tea  chambers,  in  which  the  tea  is 
placed,  and  these  are  removed  when  the  desired 
strength  has  been  extracted.  Separate  tea  balls  of 
aluminum  are  also  sold  in  this  department. 

The  spouts  of  teapots  are  longer  than  those  of  coffee 
pots  and  fitted  on  the  lower  part  of  the  pot.  They 
also  have  a  strainer  on  the  inside.  Pots  range  in  size 
from  I  to  3  quarts. 

Braising 

The  process  of  braising  meats  is  half  way  between 
boiling  and  baking.  The  meat  is  first  partially 
browned  and  then  cooked  in  a  moist  heat  in  a  tightly 
covered  pan  or  pot  in  the  oven.  At  the  end  of  the 
process  the  cover  is  removed  and  the  stock  reduced  to 
serve  as  a  sauce.  This  is  an  economical  method  of 
preparing  meat,  as  all  the  meat  juice  is  retained  in  the 
meat  and  gravy.  Cheap  cuts  can  thus  be  made  very 
palatable.  » 

Utensils  for  Braising 
The  utensils  used  for  braising  are: 

Dutch  ovens 

Casseroles 

Self -basting  roasters 


UTENSILS  FOR  COOKING 


' 


99 


Dutch  ovens  are  cast  iron  bailed  kettles  with  a 
tightly  fitting  cover.  They  are  very  good  for  braising 
purposes  because  they  are  suitable  for  cooking  on  the 
top  of  the  stove,  as  well  as  in  the  oven. 

Casseroles  and  self -basting  pans  have  been  discussed 
earlier  in  the  chapter. 

Steaming 

In  steam  cooking  steam  passes  over  the  food  and 
cooks  it  at  a  temperature  of  212°  F.  All  the  soluble 
juices  are  retained  instead  of  being  lost  as  in  boiling. 
Steamed  foods  therefore  are  highly  flavored.  Meats 
are  usually  better  when  boiled.  Many  vegetables  and 
puddings  are  excellent  when  steamed. 

Utensils  for  Steaming 

Utensils  for  steaming  require  two  compartments, 
one  for  the  boiling  water,  the  other  fitted  over  this  for 
the  food.     The  utensils  used  in  steam-cooking  are : 

Steam  cookers 

Steamers 

Poachers 

Double  boilers 
Steam  cookers  are  rather  large,  oven-shaped  cabi- 
nets, provided  with  a  copper  water  tank  at  the  base  and 
with  shelves  above,  on  which  the  food  is  cooked. 
Many  varieties  of  food  may  be  placed  in  such  a  cooker 
at  one  time. 


lOO       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

Steamers  consist  of  a  perforated  food  chamber  fit- 
ting* over  a  kettle-shaped  vessel.  The  perforated  part 
may  be  used  as  a  colander  or  strainer,  thus  doing  the 
work  of  two  utensils. 

Poachers  are  a  special  variety  of  steamer  used  for 
preparing  poached  eggs.  As  the  process  is  a  brief  one, 
the  pan  is  very  shallow  and  broad  to  provide  a  wide 
heating  surface.  A  perforated  removable  rack  holds 
3  or  5  small-handled,  shallow  cups,  each  large  enough 
to  contain  an  egg.  A  tightly  fitting  cover  goes  over 
all.  An  advantage  of  poachers  is  that  none  of  the 
white  of  the  egg  is  wasted  as  in  poaching  in  hot  water 
when  particles  of  it  are  lost. 

Double  boilers,  which  are  also  known  as  milk  boilers 
or  rice  boilers,  are  not  really  boilers  at  all,  as  the  food 
does  not  come  in  contact  with  water  or  steam,  but  is  in 
a  dry  heat.  The  outer  vessel  holding  water  keeps  the 
food  at  a  constant  temperature.  This  vessel  may  be  of 
tin,  enameled  ware,  or  aluminum.  Tinned  ware  often 
has  a  copper  bottom.  The  inner  vessel  is  usually  of  the 
same  material,  but  sometimes  inner  vessels  of  enameled 
ware  are  found  with  tin  outer  vessels. 

Double  boilers  are  very  good  for  cooking  cereals, 
custards,  and  creams,  as  the  food  juices  and  mineral 
matter  lost  in  direct  cooking  are  thus  preserved. 

Frying 
Deep  fat  frying  is  cooking  by  immersing  food  in  hot 


UTENSILS  FOR  COOKING 


lOI 


fat  at  a  temperature  of  350°  to  380°  F.  It  is  used 
for  cooking  small  cuts  of  meat,  vegetables,  and  made 
dishes,  such  as  croquettes.  The  fat  must  be  hot  enough 
to  form  an  impenetrable  layer  upon  the  surface,  other- 
wise the  grease  soaks  in  and  an  indigestible  food  is  the 
result.  When  croquettes  or  vegetables  are  cooked  in 
this  way  they  are  often  dipped  in  beaten  egg  and  bread 
crumbs,  because  the  albumin  of  the  egg  coagulates  at 
once  and  protects  the  food. 

Sauteing 

Sauteing  is  the  process  of  cooking  meats,  like  liver,  in 
a  small  amount  of  fat  in  a  shallow  pan.  The  utensil 
must  be  able  to  withstand  high  temperatures  well.  A 
thick  pan  is  better  than  a  thin  one  because  the  fat  will 
not  burn  so  easily. 

Fats 

The  fats  and  oils  used  most  frequently  for  deep  fat 
frying  are : 

Oil  (olive,  cottonseed,  or  a  mixture  of  both) 

Lard 

Butter 

Beef  or  mutton  fat 

Bacon  dripping 

Olive  oil  can  be  heated  to  608°  before  it  will  bum. 
Lard  burns  at  392°  and  butter  at  266°.     Butter  is 


i  9\ 


I02       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

therefore  a  poor  material  for  frying  and  olive  oil  is 
the  best.  A  combination  of  butter  and  lard,  or  lard 
and  mutton  fat  is  used  by  many  people  who  do  not  like 
the  taste  of  oil. 

The  nature  of  the  food  to  be  fried  must  be  taken 
into  consideration.  Cold  or  watery  articles  lower  the 
temperature  of  the  fat  very  quickly,  and  therefore  only 
a  small  amount  should  be  fried  at  one  time  and  the 
fat  should  be  allowed  to  heat  again  before  another 
"  batch  "  is  put  in. 

Utensils  for  Frying  and  Sauteing 

The  utensils  used  for  frying  in  deep  fat  are : 

Frying  kettles 
Frying  baskets 

Utensils  used  for  frying  in  a  pan  or  sauteing  are : 

Frying  pans 
Spiders 

The  utensils  in  which  frying  is  done  must  be  deep 
enough  to  allow  the  food  to  be  entirely  submerged  in 
the  fat,  and  must  be  capable  of  withstanding  great  heat 
—  the  highest  temperature  used  in  any  cooking  opera- 
tion. Iron  and  steel  ware  are  especially  desirable  for 
this  purpose.     ( See  Chapter  II. ) 

Frying  kettles  are  usually  made  of  iron  or  steel, 
sometimes  of  enameled  ware.     When  a  frying  basket 


UTENSILS  FOR  COOKING 


103 


is  to  be  used  with  them  they  are  deep  and  straight-sided, 
so  that  the  basket  may  be  lowered  into  them.  The 
food  should  be  entirely  covered  by  the  fat  even  when 
the  kettle  is  two-thirds  full.  These  frying  kettles  are 
often  provided  with  supports  from  which  the  basket 
hangs  while  draining.  The  larger  sized  kettles  have 
bail  handles,  the  smaller  ones  straight  handles. 

Frying  baskets  are  made  of  woven  wire  or  perfor- 
ated metal. 

Frying  pans,  skUlets,  and  spiders  are  diflFerent  names 
given  to  the  shallow,  handled  pans  used  for  frying  and 
sauteing  foods.  The  length  of  the  handle  varies ;  some 
styles  have  lips  on  one  side,  others  on  two  sides.  They 
are  made  of  enameled  ware,  aluminum,  cast  iron,  and 
steel.  The  inside  surfaces  of  the  two  latter  styles  are 
often  nickel-plated.  The  "spider''  originally  had 
long  legs  to  keep  it  from  the  flames  of  the  open  fire, 
whence  its  name. 

Steak  or  chop  covers,  high,  round  or  oval  tinned 
ware  covers,  may  be  used  for  covering  frying  pans 
when  pan-broiling  meat,  especially  the  cheaper  cuts.  If 
the  meat  is  cooked  a  long  time  in  a  pan  partly  filled  with 
water  and  the  pan  is  kept  tightly  covered,  the  meat  will 
be  as  tender  as  the  roasts  which  are  cooked  in  the  self- 
basting  roasters. 

Griddles  are  flat  disks,  either  round  or  oval,  of  alum- 
inum, soapstone,  enameled  ware,  or  iron,  used  on  the 
top  of  the  stove  or  over  stove  holes  for  cooking  pan- 


i 


I04       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

cakes  and  other  flat  batter  cakes.  Sometimes  they 
have  bails,  and  sometimes  a  projecting  handle  or  ear 
handles.  The  soapstone  ones  are  unequaled  when  once 
"  seasoned,"  but  they  require  long  service  to  become  so. 
Aluminum  and  soapstone  griddles  can  be  used  without 
greasing.  The  cast  iron  ones  are  sometimes  nickel- 
plated. 

Cake  turners  are  flat  tinned  ware,  enameled  ware,  or 
aluminum  squares  with  long  handles,  for  turning  pan- 
cakes on  the  griddle. 

Waffle  irons  are  also  used  on  the  top  of  the  stove. 
They  consist  of  two  parts:  hinged  halves  of  iron  or 
aluminum  which  contain  the  waffles,  and  a  base  which 
holds  the  halves  together.  The  surface  of  the  irons, 
which  may  be  either  circular  or  square  in  shape,  is 
usually  indented  to  raise  a  pattern  on  the  waffles  and 
to  give  a  greater  heating  surface;  a  deep  pattern  gives 
a  better  radiating  surface  than  a  low  one. 

It  is  necessary  in  cooking  waffles  to  have  an  even  dis- 
tribution of  heat  and  the  base  concentrates  the  heat  at 
one  point,  from  which  it  spreads  evenly  over  the  whole 
surface  of  the  iron.  For  gas  ranges  the  base  is  higher 
than  for  coal,  as  the  gas  flame  is  more  intense.  The 
higher  style  also  allows  the  waffle  mold  to  be  turned 
without  lifting  it  from  the  base.  This  is  an  advantage 
with  heavy  irons. 

Omelet  pans  are  made  in  two  parts  and  hinged  in  the 
middle.     The  sides  are  perpendicular  so  that  when 


UTENSILS  FOR  COOKING 


105 


the  pan  is  closed  one  half  fits  exactly  over  the  other. 
An  equal  amount  of  the  mixture  or  batter  is  placed  in 
each  side,  and  when  the  omelet  is  half  done  the  pan  is 
closed  and  the  double  omelet  is  on  one  side.  These 
pans  are  also  used  for  preparing  hashed  brown  pota- 
toes and  other  dishes. 


If 


Chapter  X 

IMPLEMENTS  FOR  MIXING  AND 
PREPARING  FOOD 

Stock 

Many  and  various  utensils  are  used  in  preparing  food 
both  for  cooking  and  for  serving.     The  saleswoman 
needs  to  be  particularly  well  informed  upon  this  stock 
for  It  IS  here  that  newly  patented  goods  are  constantly 
appearmg.  especially  among  the  smaller  contrivances 

In  spite  of  the  variety  of  stock,  however,  these  imple- 
ments may  be  classed  according  to  use.  as  implements 
for :  '^ 

Chopping,  cutting,  grinding 
Stirring,  beating,  pressing,  rolling 
Straining,  separating 
Measuring 
Containing 

Implements  for  Chopping,  Cutting,  Grinding 
To  this  class  belong: 

Food  choppers  or  grinders     Coffee  mills 
Chopping  knives  and  trays     Cutlery 

io6 


IMPLEMENTS  FOR  PREPARING  FOOD      107 


Biscuit,     doughnut,     and 

cooky  cutters 
Slicers 


Graters 
Can  openers 
Apple  corers 

Food  choppers  and  meat  grinders  are  of  heavy,  sub- 
stantial tinned  iron.  The  principle  upon  which  they 
are  operated  is  known  as  the  screw  motion,  which  is 
used  whenever  it  is  necessary  to  produce  great  pres- 
sure. The  food  is  fed  into  a  cylinder  through  which 
a  spiral  rod  — the  feed  screw  —  advances  when  the 
handle  to  which  it  is  attached  is  turned.  The  feed 
screw  carries  the  food  to  the  cutting  ends  and  forces 
it  against  sharp  knifelike  edges  with  openings  be- 
tween, through  which  it  falls  into  a  receptacle.  The 
screw  carries  all  the  food  to  the  cutters  and  leaves  the 
barrel  empty. 

The  degree  of  fineness  with  which  the  food  is  cut 
depends  upon  the  distance  apart  of  the  cutting  edges. 
If  they  are  close  together  the  food  will  be  finely  cut; 
if  far  apart,  coarsely  cut.  Three  sizes  are  usually 
provided  with  the  chopper,  fine,  medium,  and  coarse. 
Sometimes  an  extremely  fine  cutter,  called  a  nut  butter 
cutter,  is  also  added.  A  chopper  should  cut  rather  than 
squeeze  the  food  apart. 

Choppers  and  grinders  have  long  handles,  which 
give  greater  power  than  short  ones. 

Grinders  come  in  three  sizes.  The  largest  size, 
which  will  chop  two  or  three  pounds  of  meat  a  minute. 


I08        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

is  too  large  for  ordinary  family  use,  and  the  medium 
and  small  sizes  are  those  generally  sold. 

Grinders  should  be  washed  with  hot  water  and  soap 
immediately  after  use. 

Chopping  knives  and  bowls  produce  the  same  re- 
sults but  with  more  labor  and  time,  as  half  the  time 
and  strength  are  wasted  in  raising  the  knife.  How- 
ever, the  old-fashioned  method  is  preferred  by  those 
who  wish  to  preserve  all  the  juices  of  meat  or  fruit. 
The  bowls  are  made  of  bass  wood,  cotton  wood,  and 
maple,  turned  out  on  lathes,  and  often  sold  in  nests 
(one  inside  another).  Some  bowls  are  oblong  in 
shape.  Bowls  should  be  cleaned  as  soon  as  used,  and 
water  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  in  them  as  it  will 
warp  and  crack  them. 

Coffee  mills  are  of  two  styles.  One  style  is  a 
square,  wooden,  boxlike  mill  with  an  opening  in  the 
top  of  the  grinder  for  putting  in  the  coffee.  These 
have  a  drawer  at  the  bottom  into  which  the  ground 
coffee  falls. 

The  other  style  has  a  container,  usually  of  glass, 
though  sometimes  of  wood  and  glass,  for  storing  the 
coffee  and  feeding  it  between  the  cutting  knives.  The 
cover  must  fit  tightly  to  preserve  the  aroma  of  the 
coffee.  The  receptacle  into  which  the  ground  coffee 
falls  is  sometimes  marked  with  a  graduated  measuring 
scale. 

In  both  styles  of  grinders  the  cutting  knives  may  be 


IMPLEMENTS  FOR  PREPARING  FOOD      109 

regulated  to  produce  pulverized  coffee  for  drip  coffee 
pots,  medium  fine  for  percolators,  and  coarse  for 
boilers. 

Cutlery  consisting  of  paring  knives,  boning  knives, 
meat  cleavers,  and  bread  and  cake  knives,  is  described 
in  another  manual. 

Can  openers  are  of  many  styles  and  there  are  few 
satisfactory  ones.  It  is  essential  that  they  make  a 
clean  cut,  be  strong,  and  easily  operated.  The  cut- 
ting edge  is  of  sharpened  steel;  the  handles  of  wood 
or  steel. 

Graters  come  in  many  sizes.  They  are  of  tinned 
ware  with  sharp  toothlike  projections.  A  small  one  is 
less  wasteful  of  food  than  a  large  one.  Combination 
graters,  round  or  four-sided,  have  coarse,  medium,  and 
fine  graters  all  in  one  grater.  Box  graters  are  used 
for  nutmeg. 

Biscuit  cutters  are  round,  sharp,  tin  cutters. 
Doughnut  cutters  have  a  small,  round  cutter  fastened 
in  the  center  of  the  larger  one  to  cut  a  hole  in  the  center 
of  the  doughnut;  this  provides  a  larger  surface  of  the 
doughnut  to  be  exposed  to  the  fat.  Cooky  cutters 
come  in  a  variety  of  fancy  shapes. 

Vegetable  slicers  are  fluted,  hard  wood,  adjustable 
cutters  for  slicing  vegetables,  fruits,  etc. 

Implements  for  Stirring,  Beating,  Pressing,  Rolling 
To  this  class  belong  such  implements  as: 


i 


I  H 


lio        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


If 


Potato  mashers 

Fruit  presses 

Bread,    meat,    and    cake 

boards 
Rolling  pins 
Butter  paddles  and  molds 


Mixing  spoons 
Bread  mixers 
Cake  mixers 
Egg  beaters 
Mayonnaise  beaters 
Cream  whippers 
Lemon  squeezers 

Mixing  spoons  are  made  of  enameled,  aluminum, 
iron,  steel,  and  tinned  ware  and  of  hard  wood.  Enam- 
eled ones  must  be  heavy  or  the  enamel  will  chip  oflF. 
They  are  good  for  all  purposes,  but  in  time  the  enamel 
will  wear  off  the  edges. 

Iron  spoons  are  especially  adapted  to  heavy  use,  but 
should  not  be  used  for  stirring  acid  fruits  or  vegetables. 

Aluminum  spoons  are  light  for  beating  and  stirring, 
but  are  not  comfortable  to  use  with  hot  foods,  because 
aluminum  conducts  the  heat  so  rapidly  that  the  handles 
become  hot. 

Wooden  spoons  are  excellent  for  beating  and  stirring 
batter,  because  of  their  lightness,  noiselessness,  and 
long  handles.  Some  styles  are  slit,  like  a  fork,  which 
allows  the  batter  to  run  through  and  makes  the  work 
more  efficient.  Wooden  spoons  have  also  the  advan- 
tage of  not  discoloring  the  hand.  They  will  not  scratch 
metal.  Because  of  their  extreme  lightness,  however, 
they  are  not  so  good  for  use  with  heavy  materials  as 
are  the  heavier  spoons.     Those  which  are  used   for 


IMPLEMENTS  FOR  PREPARING  FOOD      1 1 1 


salads  should  not  be  used  with  custards  or  other  foods 
that  absorb  odors  readily,  because  wood  holds  and  car- 
ries odors. 

Bread  mixers  are  large,  tinned  ware  buckets,  pro- 
vided with  a  tightly  fitting  cover,  and  having  a  bent 
rod  operated  by  a  handle.  When  the  handle  turns  the 
bent  rod  kneads  the  dough,  so  that  it  is  unnecessary  to 
touch  it  with  the  hands.  The  mixer  is  clamped  to  a 
table  to  hold  it  firm.  This  device  makes  simple  the 
difficult  task  of  bread-making. 

Cake  mixers  are  similar  to  bread  mixers,  except  that 
they  are  provided  with  beating  fliers  instead  of  knead- 
ing rods,  and  thus  mix  and  beat  a  cake  quickly. 

Egg  beaters  are  of  three  varieties: 

Simple  wire  whisks:   spoon,   balloon,   or  spiral- 
shaped 
Dover  beaters 
Those  having  glass  containers 

Whites  of  eggs  may  be  beaten  to  a  froth  because  of 
the  texture  of  the  white,  which  stretches  and  encloses 
air.     Each  style  of  beater  produces  a  different  texture. 

The  simple  wire  whisks  make  the  airiest  texture  be- 
cause they  enclose  the  largest  amount  of  air.  They  are 
therefore  especially  desirable  for  making  meringues 
and  angel  or  sponge  cakes. 

The  Dover  egg  beater,  which  may  also  be  used  for 
whipping  cream,  and  making  mayonnaise  dressing,  is 


I  i 


1 1 2        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

composed  of  wire  blades  attached  to  two  small,  cogged 
wheels.  These  cogs  fit  the  cogs  of  a  larger  wheel 
turned  by  a  handle.  One  revolution  of  the  large  wheel 
gives  five  revolutions  of  the  small,  and  consequently 
five  revolutions  of  the  blades.  This  is  known  as  the 
"  wheel  and  axle  "  construction. 

The  Dover  beater  is  especially  good  for  all-round 
use,  as  it  works  very  quickly.  It  gives  a  fine  close 
texture  because  it  is  not  lifted  from  the  mixture  while 
it  is  operating  and  therefore  beats  in  less  air  than  the 
other  type. 

The  beaters  provided  with  glass  containers  are  of 
two  varieties.  One  kind  is  very  like  the  Dover  beater, 
except  that  the  whips  are  balloon-shaped  wire  ones; 
the  other  style,  which  is  used  for  whipping  cream,  has 
a  dasher  which  works  up  and  down.  The  advantage 
of  having  a  covered  container  is  that  the  eggs  or 
cream  do  not  spatter;  the  receptacle  also  serves  as  a 
measuring  glass. 

The  cogs  of  an  egg  beater  should  never  be  wet  as 
wetting  washes  out  the  oil  and  makes  the  beater  hard 
to  work. 

Mayonnaise  beaters  are  essentially  the  same  as  egg 
beaters,  except  that  they  have  a  reservoir  for  holding 
the  olive  oil  and  regulating  its  flow  into  the  beater, 
and  also  have  a  container  for  the  mayonnaise. 

Lemon  squeezers  are  of  two  varieties.  In  one  style, 
which  is  especially  good  for  rapid  work,  the  lemon,  cut 


IMPLEMENTS  FOR  PREPARING  FOOD       113 

in  half,  is  placed  in  a  cup-shaped  receptacle  to  which  a 
long  handle  is  attached  and  a  duplicate  is  pressed 
against  it.  The  juice  runs  through  holes  in  the  imple- 
ment. These  are  generally  of  heavy  tinned  iron  which 
may  be  used  safely  with  the  acid  lemon  juice,  because 
the  juice  is  not  heated  and  also  does  not  remain  long 
in  contact  with  the  metal.  They  are  also  made  of 
wood,  porcelain,  or  aluminum. 

The  other  variety  is  of  glass  with  a  domelike  projec- 
tion having  knobs  on  it,  on  which  the  half  lemon  is 
pressed  and  rubbed.  The  juice  either  collects  in  a 
trough  at  the  base  or  runs  through  slots  into  a  recep- 
tacle. This  variety  does  not  extract  the  oil  from  the 
lemon  peel  as  does  the  other  style  of  squeezer. 

Potato  mashers  are  of  two  general  styles.  In  the 
so-called  ricer  the  potato  is  pressed  through  small  per- 
forations in  the  masher  —  which  may  be  cylindrical 
or  wedge-shaped  —  by  a  smooth  plate  operated  by  a 
handle.  The  potato  so  mashed  appears  like  grains  of 
rice.  This  style  produces  a  drier  potato  than  the  old- 
fashioned  variety,  which  is  of  wood  or  twisted  wire 
fastened  to  a  handle  and  is  simply  pressed  down  on  the 
potato. 

Fruit  presses  are  similar  to  potato  mashers  and  are 
used  for  making  grape  juice,  and  for  pressing  juice 
from  fruits  for  jellies,  etc. 

Bread,  meat,  and  cake  boards  are  made  of  hard 
wood,  such  as  poplar,  maple,  Cottonwood,  white  cedar, 


114        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

birch.  The  white  poplar  is  said  to  be  entirely  odor- 
less. They  come  in  sizes  12x14,  14x20,  15x22, 
18  X  24,  19  X  28,  20  X  30. 

Rolling  pins  are  made  of  hard  wood  —  usually  of 
maple  —  china  or  glass.  The  glass  ones  may  be  filled 
with  cracked  ice  and  are  used  for  pastry. 

Butter  paddles  and  molds  are  of  hard  wood,  such  as 
ash,  birch,  beech,  or  maple,  with  corrugated  surfaces 
for  rolling  butter  into  balls  or  rolls. 

Implements  for  Straining  and  Separating 
These  include: 


Funnels 
Flour  sifters 


Colanders 
Strainers 
Egg  separators 

Colanders  are  perforated  utensils  made  of  alum- 
inum, tinned  ware,  or  enameled  ware,  or  woven  wire, 
for  straining  soups,  vegetables,  etc.  They  have  ear 
handles. 

Strainers  are  smaller  than  colanders  and  used  for 
straining  gravies,  tea,  etc.  They  are  made  entirely  of 
woven  wire,  or  of  tinned  or  enameled  ware  with  either 
woven  wire  or  perforated  bottoms. 

Both  colanders  and  strainers  set  over  a  kettle  make 
excellent  steamers. 

Sifters  are  used  for  dry  materials  such  as  flour  or 
meal.     Flour  sifters  usually  have  cranks,  operated  at 


IMPLEMENTS  FOR  PREPARING  FOOD      115 

the  side  or  through  the  handle,  which  revolve  blades 
inside  the  sifter  so  as  to  break  up  lumpy  meal  and 
hasten  the  sifting  process.  They  are  of  tinned  ware, 
with  wire  bottoms. 

Funnels  are  in  the  shape  of  an  inverted  cone,  fas- 
tened to  a  tube.  They  are  used  for  filling  bottles  or 
other  narrow-mouthed  receptacles.  Funnels  with  wide 
mouths  are  used  with  fruit  cans. 

Egg  separators  are  used  in  separating  the  yolk  from 
the  white  of  raw  eggs.  They  are  small,  flat,  round 
implements  of  either  aluminum  or  tinned  ware,  with  a 
slot  through  which  the  white  of  the  tgg  slips  and  a 
cuplike  depression  which  holds  the  yolk. 

Implements  for  Measuring 

There  are  two  methods  of  measuring:  by  quantity, 
that  is  by  the  quart,  pint,  spoonful,  etc. ;  and  by  weight! 
that  is,  by  pounds,  ounces.  Measuring  by  quantity  is 
the  method  most  used  in  household  cooking. 

Quart  or  pint  measures  are  made  of  tinned  ware  or 
of  glass,  and  are  plain  or  lipped.  They  are  marked  to 
measure  half  pints,  and  sometimes  ounces  and  pounds 
as  well.  A  kitchen  should  be  provided  with  two  meas- 
ures, one  for  dry  and  one  for  liquid  materials. 

Measuring  cups  hold  half  a  pint,  and  are  divided  into 
quarters,  halves,  and  thirds.  They  are  made  of  tinned 
ware,  aluminum,  or  glass. 

Measuring  spoons  come  in  one-quarter,  one-half, 


1  !f 


Il6       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

one  teaspoon,  dessert-spoon,  and  table-spoon  sizes. 
"  Nests  "  of  one-quarter,  one-half,  and  one  teaspoon 
often  come  fastened  together  for  convenience.  Meas- 
uring spoons  are  of  aluminum  or  tinned  ware. 

Scales  are  either  spring  or  balance  scales.  Spring 
scales  are  the  kind  sold  for  ordinary  household  use. 
At  the  top  is  a  flat  pan  upon  which  the  article  to  be 
weighed  is  placed.  This  pan  rests  upon  a  coiled  wire 
spring,  which  is  contained  in  the  iron  box  beneath.  A 
pointer  connected  with  the  spring  operates  over  a  dial 
which  may  be  either  upright  or  tilted  backwards.  The 
contraction  and  expansion  of  the  spring  with  the 
weight  of  the  article  on  the  pan  cause  the  pointer  to 
move.  Some  of  these  scales  are  provided  with  tinned 
scoops ;  others  have  an  extra  "  tare  "  hand  which  gives 
the  weight  of  the  container  separately  from  the  article. 
Although  spring  scales  are  satisfactory  enough  for 
household  use,  they  are  not  accurate  enough  for  trade 
use,  because  the  force  of  the  spring  varies,  contracting 
and  expanding  with  changes  in  the  temperature. 

There  is  a  variation  of  the  spring  scale  on  which  the 
article  to  be  weighed  is  hung  from  a  hook  attached  to 
the  end  of  the  coiled  spring.  The  spring  moves  a 
pointer  over  an  indicator. 

For  accurate  weighing  platform  scales  are  used.  In 
this  style  a  small  known  weight  at  one  end  of  a  beam 
is  made  to  balance  a  heavy  unknown  weight  at  the 
other  end,  on  the  lever  principle. 


IMPLEMENTS  FOR  PREPARING  FOOD       117 

Tables  of  Weights  and  Measures 

The  saleswoman  will  often  find  it  to  her  advantage 
to  know  some  other  rules  of  weight  and  measure  in 
addition  to  the  common : 


4  gills 
2  pints 
4  quarts 
16  ounces 


I  pint 
I  quart 
I  gallon 
I  pound 


and  the  following  may  be  of  use : 

4  teaspoons  liquid 

4  tablespoons  liquid 

I  tablespoon  liquid 

I  pint  liquid 

2.gills  liquid 

I  kitchen  cup 

I  heaping  quart  sifted  flour 

4  cups  flour 

I  rounded  tablespoon 

3  cups  corn  meal 

1%  pints  corn  meal 

I  cup  butter 

1  tablespoon  butter 

2  cups  granulated  sugar 
I  pint  granulated  sugar 
I  pint  brown  sugar 
2^  cups  powdered  sugar 
Butter  size  of  an  tgg 
Butter  size  of  a  walnut 
10  eggs 


I  tablespoon 

Yz  gill  or  14  cup 

%  ounce 

I  pound 

I  cup,  or  %  pint 

%pint 

I  pound 

I  quart  or  I  pound 

I  ounce 

I  pound 

I  pound 

Yz  pound 

I  ounce 

I  pound 

I  pound 

13  ounces 

1  pound 

2  ounces 
I  ounce 
about  I  pound 


ai 


Measurements  should  be  taken  level. 


(fi 


, 


M 


■! 


■M 


Ii8        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

Utensils  for  Containing  Food 
The  vessels  used  for  containing  food  are : 


Bowls 

Jars 

Cups 

Pitchers 

Plates 


Boxes 

Cans 

Bread  raisers 

Molds 


Bowls  come  in  a  great  variety  of  sizes,  made  of 
earthenware,  tinned  ware,  enameled  ware,  and  wood. 
They  are  both  plain  and  lipped. 

Jars  are  of  earthenware  or  glass.  The  crockery 
ones,  usually  blue  and  white,  are  used  for  containing 
many  kinds  of  food.  They  are  attractive  and  help  to 
carry  out  a  color  scheme.  The  glass  ones  have  the  ad- 
vantage of  being  transparent  so  that  the  contents  may 
be  noted  at  a  glance.  These  can  be  labeled  with  black 
paint,  shellacked  over  afterwards.  Paper  labels  will 
wear  well  also  if  shellacked  over. 

Jelly  glasses  are  either  plain  or  have  a  fluted  inner 
surface  to  produce  a  fancy  effect  when  the  jelly  is 
turned  out.  They  are  provided  with  tightly  fitting  tin 
covers. 

Preserve  cans  are  of  three  varieties : 

I.  Screw  top,  in  which  the  top  is  either  of  tin  with 
a  lining  of  porcelain,  or  with  a  tin  screw  and 
glass  top  which  screws  down  over  the  jar. 


IMPLEMENTS  FOR  PREPARING  FOOD      I19 

2.  The  kind  having  a  glass  top  which  is  held  in 

place  by  a  simple  wire  spring. 

3.  Self-sealing  jars  in  which  no  rubber  is  required. 

In  the  first  two  styles  rubber  rings  are  used  to  make 
air-tight  joints.  Black  rubber  is  more  durable  than 
white ;  but  red  rubber  is  best.  Only  thick,  strong,  elas- 
tic "  live  "  rubber  ones  should  be  used,  as  the  poor  ones 
shrink,  crack,  and  let  in  the  air. 

The  principle  of  preserving  is  the  prevention  of 
microscopic  plants  or  bacteria  which  are  the  cause  of 
the  decay  of  all  foods.  Heat  destroys  the  bacteria  in 
the  food  and  sealing  prevents  the  entrance  of  others. 

Cups,  pitchers,  and  plates  are  used  for  holding  left- 
over foods,  etc.  The  heavier,  less  expensive  grades 
of  china  or  earthenware  are  used  (see  manual  for 
"  Chinaware  Department"),  and  also  enameled  ware 
and  glass.  As  these  articles  are  for  utility  only,  they 
should  be  plain  and  substantial.  Pitchers  should  be 
wide-mouthed  to  admit  of  easy  cleaning,  and  should 
have  a  lip  that  pours  well. 

Bread  and  cake  boxes  are  made  of  japanned  ware. 
Some  have  roll  tops,  others  are  plain  square  or  ob- 
long boxes,  while  others  are  like  small  cupboards 
with  shelves,  the  door  opening  out  in  front.  They 
have  ventilating  holes  to  prevent  the  contents  from 
molding. 

"  Tin    storage    receptacles   are   good    for   keeping 


I20        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

cookies  and  cake,  but  stone  crocks  are  better   for 
bread. 

"  The  difference  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  process  of 
growing  stale  is  a  different  one  in  each  case.  Cookies 
turn  stale  by  absorbing  moisture  from  outside;  there- 
fore they  require  that  that  moisture  be  kept  away. 
The  impervious  tin  cake  box  does  this,  especially  if  a 
few  pieces  of  charcoal  are  placed  in  the  box  to  absorb 
what  little  moisture  may  accumulate. 

"  Bread  grows  stale  by  the  shifting  of  its  own 
moisture  from  crumb  to  crust.  A  fresh  loaf  has  a 
crisp  crust  and  a  soft  crumb,  while  in  a  stale  loaf  the 
reverse  is  true.  In  a  tin  box,  especially  if  it  be  un ven- 
tilated, this  moisture,  held  in  the  crust,  soon  makes  a 
musty  loaf.  In  a  stone  crock,  which  is  porous,  the 
moisture  has  a  chance  to  escape,  the  crust  becomes  less 
soggy,  and  the  flavor  of  the  loaf  is  better  maintained. 
In  cake,  where  there  is  less  diflference  in  texture  be- 
tween the  outside  and  the  inside  of  the  loaf,  staleness 
consists  in  a  gradual  general  loss  of  moisture.  Cake  is 
therefore  better  kept  in  tin,  with  the  addition  of  a 
receptacle  containing  water,  to  be  daily  renewed.  If 
cake  and  bread  be  stored  in  the  same  box,  the  cake  will 
take  up  moisture  (and  incidentally  a  bready  flavor) 
from  the  bread  and  remain  moist  longer,  while  the 
bread  will  dry  faster  than  when  stored  by  itself."  * 

1  From   Farm   House   Series   No.    5,   Cornell   Reading  Courses,   "  Choice 
and   Care  of  Utensils,"  by  Ida  S.  Harrington. 


IMPLEMENTS  FOR  PREPARING  FOOD      12 1 

Spice,  Hour,  sugar,  coffee,  tea,  dredge,  pepper,  and 
salt  boxes  are  made  of  japanned  ware.  Some  flour 
containers  have  sifters  attached.  Flour,  cereal,  and 
salt  boxes  are  also  made  of  earthenware. 

Wooden  buckets  of  varying  sizes  are  sold  for  sugar, 
flour,  meal,  rice,  tapioca,  crackers,  barley.  They  are 
not  suitable  for  cereals,  however,  because  they  are  not 
air-tight. 

Bread  raisers  are  large  vessels  of  either  tinned  or 
enameled  ware,  with  ventilated  covers,  into  which 
bread  dough  is  put  to  be  raised. 


v 


CLEANING  IMPLEMENTS 


123 


Chapter  XI 

CLEANING  IMPLEMENTS 

Articles 

In  this  section  belong  : 

Brooms 

Brushes 

Mops 

Dusters  and  cleaning  cloths 

Beaters 

Carpet-sweepers 

Dust-pans 

Scouring  and  polishing  materials 

Garbage  cans,  pails,  ash  cans,  etc.,  are  also  included 
in  this  chapter. 

All  the  articles  are  simple  in  construction,  and  gen- 
erally inexpensive. 

Brooms 

There  are  several  kinds  of  brooms:  floor,  ceiling, 

children's,  and  whisk  brooms.    All  of  these  are  made  of 

broom  corn,  a  canelike  grass  of  India,  cultivated  in 

the  middle  west  of  the  United  States  for  this  purpose 

alone.     Kansas  and  Oklahoma  supply  the  largest  crop ; 

122 


Illinois  the  best.  The  plant  somewhat  resembles  ordi- 
nary maize.  The  top  part  of  the  stalk  and  head  are 
used  for  brooms.  There  are  many  grades  of  this  com. 
Some  of  them  are  known  to  the  manufacturers  as : 

Green  hurl  corn 

Green  self- working 

Medium  quality  hurl 

Medium  quality  self-working 

Sound  good  common 

Dwarf  corn  for  whisks 

Common  red  tipped  insides  and  covers 

Stained  and  damaged 

The  handles  of  the  floor  brooms  are  of  hard  wood, 
chiefly  maple,  birch,  and  beech.  They  are  turned  out 
on  lathes,  and  then  smoothed  in  a  "  sander,"  a  machine 
which  revolves  the  handle  in  contact  with  a  belt  which 
polishes  it.  A  great  many  handles  are  given  no  fur- 
ther finishing.  Others  are  stained  and  varnished  or 
painted. 

The  handles  of  whisk  brooms  are  usually  rough 
wood,  covered  with  the  corn.  For  fancy  handles, 
bone,  celluloid,  or  silver  is  used. 

The  process  of  making  brooms  is  very  simple  and  a 
large  number  are  still  made  by  hand,  especially  in 
prisons  and  penitentiaries.  The  largest  broom  factory 
in  the  world  is  in  Amsterdam,  N.  Y. 

The  corn  is  sorted  into  equal  lengths,  bleached,  and 


124       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

dried.  It  is  then  placed  around  the  end  of  the  stick 
and  fastened  by  wire  in  a  winding  machine.  The 
broom  is  conical  at  this  stage,  and  must  be  flattened  in 
a  vise.  It  is  then  sewed  by  hand,  or  by  power,  with 
stout  twine,  usually  flax  twine  which  was  formerly 
imported  from  Europe,  but  is  now  made  in  the  United 
States. 

The  broom  is  then  run  through  a  scraping  machine 
to  remove  any  seed  left  on  the  corn,  after  which  it  is 
trimmed  and  the  plush  or  velvet  guards  are  placed  over 
the  wiring.  This  is  omitted  in  the  cheaper  grades. 
The  brooms  are  then  labeled  and  bunched  in  dozens  for 
shipment. 

Customers  will  appreciate  being  told  that  new  brooms 
should  be  soaked  in  hot  salt  water.  This  toughens  the 
corn.  Brooms  should  always  be  hung  up,  not  allowed 
to  stand  on  the  floor,  as  this  ruins  their  shape.  They 
will  last  longer  if  washed  in  hot  soapy  water  fre- 
quently. This  keeps  them  soft  and  pliable.  The 
wires  at  the  top  should  not  be  wet,  as  they  will  rust 
and  break. 

Brushes 

Brushes  are  used  for  two  general  purposes:  (i)  to 
apply  something,  paint  for  example,  and  (2)  to  remove 
dirt.  As  each  variety  is  suited  to  some  particular  ser- 
vice, their  number  is  almost  unlimited.  Some  of  them 
are: 


CLEANING  IMPLEMENTS 


125 


1 .  Brushes  for  cleaning  and  polishing  wood : 

Scrubbing  brushes  Dusting  brushes 

Floorsweeping  brushes        Balustrade  brushes 
Floorwaxing  brushes  Window    and    blind 

Dust-pan  brushes  brushes 

2.  Brushes  for  cleaning  porcelain  and  glass : 

Bath  tub  brushes  Window  brushes 

Sanitary  brushes  Bottle  brushes 

Hearth  brushes 

3.  Brushes  for  cleaning  metal  surfaces: 

Scouring  brushes  Radiator  or  spring 

Silver  cleaning  brushes  brushes 

Stove  cleaning  brushes 

4.  Brushes  for  furniture  and  clothing: 

Stair  carpet  brushes  Doilie  brushes 

Furniture  brushes  Whisk  brooms 

Mud  and  spot  brushes  Crumb  brushes 
Shoe  brushes 

5.  Brushes  for  food: 

Pastry  brushes  Vegetable  brushes 

Chapter  XVI  of  the  manual  for  the  '*  Leather  Goods 
Department  '*  describes  methods  of  making  brushes, 
materials  used,  and  tests  for  distinguishing  them. 
Coarser  fibers,  which  are  not  injured  by  water,  are 
used  for  brushes  of  the  House  furnishings  Department. 
These  are: 


126        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

Tampico  (a  tropical  South  American  plant) 

Rice  root 

Coir  (the  husk  of  the  cocoanut) 

Palmyra  (an  East  Indian  Palm) 

Cocoa  fiber 

Piassava  (a  coarse  fiber  from  the  inner  stalk  of  a 

palm) 
Bass 
Bassine 
Kittool 
Union  fiber  (a  mixture) 

There  is  a  wide  range  in  the  quality  of  the  woods 
used  in  the  backs  because  of  the  varying  quality  of  the 
brushes.  The  backs  of  scrub  brushes  are  chiefiy  made 
of  birch,  beech,  and  maple. 

The  brush-making  industry  centers  in  Pennsylvania. 
Ohio,  New  York,  Maryland,  and  Maine  are  also  large 
producers.  About  13,000,000  feet  of  wood  are  used 
annually  for  this  purpose  alone. 

Brushes  should  always  be  dried  with  the  bristles 
down,  not  with  the  back  down;  otherwise  the  water 
is  allowed  to  soak  into  the  back,  which  loosens  the  set, 
and  cracks  the  wood. 

When  brushes  are  used  in  connection  with  food,  as 
for  greasing  pans,  it  is  desirable  that  the  **  set ''  be  of 
such  a  nature  that  the  brush  may  be  sterilized  without 
injury. 


CLEANING  IMPLEMENTS 


127 


Mops 

Floor  mops  are  of  two  general  kinds : 

Wet  mops  for  use  with  water  in  washing  floors 
Dry  mops  for  polishing  hard  wood  floors 

Both  varieties  are  made  of  waste  cotton  yarn  which  is 
soft  and  absorbent. 

Wet  mops  are  often  provided  with  self-wringing  de- 
vices. The  handles  are  usually  made  of  plain  hard 
wood,  because  they  are  so  often  in  contact  with  strong 
soapy  water  which  would  injure  better  finishes. 

Dry  mops  are  of  two  varieties,  the  plain  mop  and  the 
mop  which  is  permeated  with  an  oil  or  a  chemical  which 
holds  the  dust  and  polishes  the  floor.  The  advantage 
of  the  latter  is  that  the  dust  is  not  scattered  through 
the  house.  Mops  may  be  washed  and  reoiled  with  a 
special  oil  sold  for  the  purpose. 

The  frame,  to  which  the  handle  is  attached,  may 
be  round,  triangular,  or  heart-shaped  to  reach  into  cor- 
ners. Some  styles  have  rubber  tips  on  the  ends  to 
prevent  marring  furniture. 

When  the  handles  are  adjustable  the  mop  can  reach 
under  furniture  and  it  also  stays  flat  on  the  floor.  The 
handles  of  these  dry  mops  are  often  stained  by  the  use 
of  logwood,  copperas,  or  nut  galls,  to  look  like  the 
black  wood,  ebony,  or  are  enameled  with  japan. 

Mop  zvringers  are  made  to  fit  upon  pails  for  use  in 
wringing  floor  mops.     Some  pails  are  made  with  spe- 


1; 


128       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

cially  fitted  attachments  for  the  purpose.     These  save 
labor. 

Cleaning  Cloths 

These  include  dish,  scrubbing,  dusting,  and  polishing 
cloths. 

Dusting  cloths,  treated  with  a  chemical  to  hold  the 
dust  so  as  not  to  scatter  it  around,  are  known  as 
"  dustless  "  dusters.     Feather  dusters  are  also  sold. 

Chamois  for  washing  windows  are  made  of  sheep- 
skin. (See  manual  for  the  "Leather  Goods  De- 
partment'* for  a  description  of  the  preparation  of 
chamois.) 

Dust-Pans 

These  receptacles  for  holding  dust  and  dirt  are 
usually  of  japanned  ware,  sometimes  of  galvanized 
ware.  The  style  which  has  a  hood-shaped  top  is  bet- 
ter than  the  open  style,  as  the  top  prevents  the  dust 
from  flying  up  as  it  is  swept  into  the  pan.  Dust-pans 
now  come  with  long  handles,  so  that  the  person  using 
them  does  not  have  to  stoop  over.  The  better  grades 
have  a  firm  steel  edge,  so  that  the  pan  will  lie  flat  on 
the  floor. 

Carpet-Sweepers 

Carpet-sweepers  are  a  combination  of  mechanical 
broom  and  dust-pan.     They  consist  of : 


CLEANING  IMPLEMENTS 


129 


A  revolving  brush 
A  wooden  dust-pan 
A  long  handle 

The  small  rubber-covered  wheels  rest  in  ball-bearing 
sockets  and  in  the  better-quality  sweepers  they  are 
covered  with  a  protecting  metal  case.  These  wheels, 
which  project  far  enough  from  the  dust-pan  to  rest  on 
the  carpet,  are  attached  to  the  revolving  brush.  When 
the  sweeper  is  pushed  along  the  wheels  rotate  the 
brush,  which  brushes  the  dust  into  the  closed  pan. 

The  wooden  cases  or  pans  are  made  of  many  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  wood,  the  most  common  being  maple, 
birch,  and  oak.  Mahogany  veneer  is  also  used.  Two 
million  **  board  feet  "  *  of  lumber  are  used  annually  in 
this  industry  alone. 

A  woven  braid  band  usually  encircles  the  case  to 
prevent  the  sweeper  from  marring  furniture. 

Carpet-sweepers  scatter  less  dust  than  brooms. 

Carpet-Beaters 

Carpet-beaters  are  made  of  rattan  or  wire  and  consist 
of  a  flat,  racquet-shaped  top  fixed  to  a  handle. 

Scouring,  Cleaning,  and  Polishing  Materials 
Many  different  powders  and  pastes  are  sold  in  the 

1  *'  Board  foot  is  the  common  unit  of  measure  for  logs  and  lumber  in  the 
United  States.  A  board  foot  is  the  contents  of  a  board  one  foot  square  and 
one  inch  thick. 


■i 


I30        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

Housefumishings  Department  for  cleaning  and  polish- 
ing  metals  and  other  substances. 

Metals  tarnish  because  they  are  acted  upon  by  both 
air  and  water.  Abrasion,  or  rubbing,  with  a  material 
harder  than  the  tarnish  itself,  will  remove  it.  The  es- 
sentials  of  any  good  polishing  powder  therefore  are: 

1.  That  it  be  harder  than  the  layer  of  corroded  or 

tarnished  matter. 

2.  That  the  particles  be  so  fine  that  they  will  not 

scratch  the  metal. 

The   cleaning   powders   best   adapted   to   diflferent 
metals  are  as  follows,  for  : 

Iron  and  wood  —  white  sand 

Steel  knives  —  Bath  or  Bristol  brick 

Copper,  brass,  and  tin  —  tripoli,  or  rottenstone 

Silver,  aluminum,  and  tin  —  whiting 

White  sand  is  the  polishing  material  in  most  scouring 
soaps  and  powders.  It  is  a  very  cheap  and  pure  sand 
made  by  crushing  quartz,  sandstone,  or  other  rock  to 
fine  powder.  It  is  also  made  into  solid  scouring  bricks 
known  as  Bath  or  Bristol  bricks.  It  should  not  be  used 
on  gold  or  silver,  as  it  is  too  coarse. 

Tripoli,  rottenstone,  electro-silicon,  and  diatomaceous 
earth  are  various  names  for  an  earth  made  up  of  the 
widely  distributed  glassy  skeletons  of  microscopic 
plants,  which  are  nearly  as  hard  as  sand,  and  yet  are  so 
fine  grained  that  they  do  not  scratch  metals. 


CLEANING  IMPLEMENTS 


131 


Whiting  is  finely  powdered  English  chalk.  The 
chalk  is  sifted  through  muslin  and  floated  in  water; 
the  heavy  particles  sink,  and  the  fine  part  which  floats 
is  used  for  the  whiting.  This  is  the  basis  of  nearly 
all  silver  polishes.  It  can  be  used  mixed  with  am- 
monia. When  mixed  with  oil  and  an  acid  it  forms  a 
paste  or  liquid,  which  is  excellent  for  cleaning  brass 
and  copper,  but  should  not  be  used  on  silver. 

Sand  soap  is  a  mixture  of  fine  clay,  alkali,  and  fat. 

Stove  blacking  is  graphite  (a  form  of  carbon)  mixed 
with  molasses  or  other  sticky  substances. 

Electrical  silver  cleaners  are  special  devices  for  clean- 
ing silver,  consisting  of  an  aluminum  plate  which  is 
put  into  boiling  water  in  which  baking  soda  or  salt 
are  dissolved.  The  chemical  reaction  which  takes 
place  reduces  the  tarnish  ^  to  a  pure  metallic  silver. 
Experiments  have  shown  that  cleaning  by  rubbing  with 
an  abrasive  material  removes  25  times  as  much  silver 
as  the  electrolytic  method.  This  electrical  method  of 
cleaning  silver  does  not  leave  the  silver  with  a  high 
polish,  and  if  this  is  desired  it  may  be  secured  by  rub- 
bing. The  method  is  suitable  for  both  sterling  and 
plated  silver. 

Silver-plated  ware  should  not  be  scoured  or  rubbed 
hard,  as  the  plating  is  softer  than  ordinary  sterling  sil- 

1  Tarnish  is  a  black  substance  formed  when  silver  comes  in  contact  with 
sulphur  compounds  which  are  present  in  air,  water,  gas,  in  many  foods, 
especially  eggs,  and  also  in  rubber  and  wool. 


'  J 


1^ 


•  •' 


^'i 


132       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

ver  and  wears  away  more  easily.  (See  manual  for 
"  Silverware  Department.") 

If  silverware  is  lacquered  no  abrasive  substance 
should  be  used  in  cleaning  it,  as  this  will  wear  away  the 
lacquer  and  expose  the  silver. 

Steel  wool  is  used  for  polishing  metals  in  the  same 
way  as  sand  or  emery.  It  consists  of  sharp-edged 
threads  of  steel  which  curl  up  like  wool  or  excelsior. 
It  should  not  be  used  on  soft  metals,  as  it  will  scratch 
them. 

Furniture  polishes  have  various  oils  as  a  base.  The 
formulas  are  usually  kept  secret  by  the  manufacturers. 

Pails  and  Buckets 

Water  pails,  scrub  pails,  fire  pails,  and  coal  hods 
are  made  of  galvanized  iron,  enameled  ware,  wood,  or 
fiber  (see  "laundry  tubs"  in  Chapter  XII).  They 
vary  in  size,  holding  from  6  to  14  quarts. 

Ash  Cans 

Ash  cans  are  always  made  of  heavy  galvanized  ware. 
Some  are  made  with  hard  wood  staves,  others  with 
steel  ribs.  Some  are  reinforced  with  iron  braces 
around  the  center.     Many  are  corrugated. 

Ash  cans  are  usually  either  24  or  26  inches  in  height, 
and  in  diameter  vary  from  15  to  18  inches. 


CLEANING  IMPLEMENTS 


133 


Garbage  Cans 

These  are  made  of  galvanized  ware  and  of  enameled 
ware.  The  covers  should  be  tight  fitting  to  prevent 
cats  and  dogs  from  ravaging  the  contents,  as  well  as 
for  sanitary  reasons.  There  are  patent  devices  for  this 
purpose.  The  cans  come  in  many  sizes,  holding  4,  6, 
8,  and  10  gallons. 

Oil  Cans 

Cans  for  holding  kerosene  oil  may  be  small  with  long 
spouts  for  filling  lamps,  etc.,  or  in  larger  sizes  for 
storage  purposes.  The  former  are  usually  of  tinned 
ware,  the  latter  either  of  tinned  or  galvanized  ware. 

Miscellaneous  Accessories 

Bedroom  accessories,  consisting  of  wash  bowls  and 
pitchers,  chambers,  slop  pails,  candle  sticks,  toilet 
stands;  and  a  few  bathroom  accessories,  as  foot  tubs 
and  baby  baths,  are  sold  in  this  section  also.  These 
are  made  of  galvanized,  enameled,  tinned,  and 
japanned  ware. 


Chapter  XII 

LAUNDRY  EQUIPMENT 
Divisions 

Equipment  for  the  laundry  falls  into  two  general 
classes : 

Articles  for  washing  clothes 
Articles  for  ironing  clothes 

To  understand  the  merits  of  the  appliances  for 
laundry  work,  the  saleswoman  must  also  understand 
the  pnnciples  of  laundering.  For  this  information  the 
reader  is  referred  to  Chapter  XXVI  of  the  manual  for 
the  "  Cotton  and  Linen  Departments.'* 

Washboards  or  Rubbing  Boards 

The    corrugated    boards    upon    which    clothes   are 
rubbed  to  remove  the  dirt  are  of  three  varieties : 

Glass-covered 

Zinc-  or  brass-covered 

All  wood 

The  cheapest  and  least  desirable  boards  are  all  wood. 
The  wood  is  apt  to  splinter  and  become  rough  from  the 
friction  of  use. 

134 


^5><iiwpwiiinl»»wwr-a  ■wwii 


LAUNDRY  EQUIPMENT 


13s 


The  zinc-covered  ones  are  very  satisfactory  for  ordi- 
nary hard  use.  Zinc  does  not  rust.  These  are  made 
with  both  single  and  double  rubbing  surfaces. 

The  glass-covered  boards  are  very  satisfactory  as 
they  cannot  rust  nor  develop  sharp  edges  to  tear  the 
clothes,  although  they  have  the  disadvantage  of  being 
easily  broken.  They  must  be  protected  from  sudden 
changes  of  temperature. 

In  all  the  boards  the  corrugations  should  be  rounded 
rather  than  angular,  as  sharp  edges  wear  the  clothes. 
On  the  better  boards  the  top  projects  enough  to  protect 
the  clothing  of  the  user  from  the  splashing  of  the 
water. 

The  woods  used  for  the  backs  and  frames  of  the  best 
boards  are  cottonwood,  basswood,  and  spruce.  (See 
Chapter  VI.) 

Boards  come  in  several  sizes. 

Laundry  Tubs 

Portable  laundry  tubs  are  of  three  varieties : 

Wood 

Galvanized  iron 
Fiber 

Wooden  ones  are  made  of  woods  which  stand  water 
well,  such  as  pine,  cypress,  or  hemlock.  ( See  Chapter 
VI.)  They  are  constructed  of  narrow  upright  staves 
fitted  into  a  straight  bottom  and  held  tightly  together 


Hi 


1   y 


136       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

by  iron  hoops.  They  must  be  kept  damp  else  they  will 
shrink  and  leak,  but  water  should  not  be  allowed  to 
stand  in  them,  as  the  best  of  wood  will  warp  and  split 
imder  such  conditions. 

Galvanized  steel  tubs  are  very  satisfactory,  as  they 
do  not  rust  and  are  light.  The  heavier  ones  are  pro- 
vided with  an  attachment  for  holding  the  wringer. 

Fiber  tubs  are  made  of  wood  pulp  molded  into  shape 
and  finished  with  a  high  luster.  They  are  light,  con- 
venient to  handle,  and  because  of  their  smoothness; 
easy  to  keep  clean.  They  will  not  leak  nor  fall  apart 
because  they  are  made  in  one  piece. 

Tubs  are  of  many  sizes.  The  12  to  15  gallon  tubs 
are  the  medium  family  sizes.  These  tubs  are  large 
enough  to  prevent  splashing.  At  least  two  tubs  are 
required  for  washing  clothes. 

Clothes  Washers 

Tin  cones  with  long  wooden  handles  are  used  by 
many  to  accelerate  washing.  When  forced  up  and 
down  in  the  tub  they  remove  dirt  by  suction. 

Wringers 

Clothes  wringers  are  machines  for  wringing  clothes 
dry.  They  consist  of  rubber-covered  rollers,  adjusted 
by  screws  and  operated  by  a  crank.  The  frames  are 
of  maple. 

The  springs  which  control  the  rollers  and  the  gears 


LAUNDRY  EQUIPMENT 


137 


are  usually  hidden  in  the  casing  to  prevent  the  clothes 
and  the  fingers  from  being  caught.  The  springs  may 
be  either  coiled  wire,  one  such  spring  at  either  side,  or 
an  arched  steel  pressure  spring  reaching  from  side  to 
side  and  controlled  by  a  cross  bar  of  wood.  This 
style  distributes  the  pressure  very  evenly  over  the 
rollers.  In  the  best  wringers  the  gears  are  ball-bear- 
ing. 

All  metal  parts  must  be  heavily  galvanized  to  prevent 
rusting.  The  greater  the  diameter  of  the  rollers,  the 
greater  the  pressure  they  can  exert  and  the  drier  they 
will  wring.  It  is  good  economy  to  purchase  a  first- 
class  wringer,  and  one  as  large  as  possible;  16  or  18 
inch  rollers  will  wring  a  good-sized  blanket  when  it  is 
doubled  lengthwise  twice. 

The  life  of  a  wringer  is  greatly  prolonged  by  good 
care.  The  screws  which  tighten  the  rubber  cylinders 
should  be  loosened  after  use  to  remove  the  pressure 
from  the  rubber.  A  weak  solution  of  ammonia  will 
preserve  the  rubber.  Grease  should  never  be  allowed 
to  come  in  contact  with  the  rollers.  The  cogs  may  be 
cleaned  with  kerosene  and  then  oiled  with  a  good 
machine  oil. 

Not  all  styles  of  wringers  can  be  used  on  round 
tubs,  and  the  salesperson  should  ascertain  which  kind 
of  tub  the  customer  has. 

Wringers  save  work  for  the  worker.  They  also  are 
less  hard  on  the  clothes  than  hand-wringing. 


138       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 
Boilers 
Clothes  boilers  are  made  of 
Copper 
Tinned  iron 

Tinned  iron  with  copper  bottoms 
Galvanized  iron 

Copper  is  an  excellent  conductor  of  heat,  and  there- 
fore boilers  of  copper  are  very  satisfactory.  They  are 
expensive,  however.  Those  made  of  tin  with  copper 
bottoms  have  an  advantage  over  those  which  are 
wholly  of  tin.  The  coating  of  tin  must  be  heavy  as 
otherwise  it  wears  off  and  the  iron  base  will  be  exposed 
and  rust  the  clothes. 

The  better  quality  of  boilers  are  double-seamed  to 
prevent  leaking  and  have  wire  around  the  top  for  addi- 
tional strength.  Wooden  handles  are  cooler  than 
metal  ones. 

Boilers  are  usually  oval,  as  this  shape  fits  better  on 
the  stove. 

The  ID  or  12  gallon  size  is  a  good  one  for  family  use. 

Some  boilers  have  faucets,  which  are  a  convenience 
in  drawing  off  the  water. 

Clothes  lifters  for  lifting  the  clothes  from  the  boilers 
are  plain,  smooth,  hard  wood  sticks  with  galvanized 
prongs. 

Clothes  Baskets  and  Hampers 
(See  Chapter  XVIII.) 


LAUNDRY  EQUIPMENT  139 

Clothes  Lines 
There  are  three  kinds  of  clothes  lines: 

Cotton 
Hemp 
Galvanized  iron 

The  cotton  lines  are  both  braided  and  twisted.  For 
a  description  of  the  process  of  braiding  see  Chapter 
IX  in  the  manual  for  the  "  Notion  Department."  Cot- 
ton lines  are  very  strong  and  do  not  stretch,  kink,  or 
ravel.     The  clothes-pins  hold  firmly  on  them  also. 

The  hemp  lines  do  not  injure  the  clothes,  as  they 
yield  easily  to  the  pressure  of  the  pins. 

Galvanized  lines  are  permanent,  and  will  not  sag 
nor  rust  the  clothes. 

Lines  come  in  50,  75,  and  100  foot  lengths,  and  all 
are  one- fourth  inch  in  diameter. 

Clothes-pins 

There  are  two  varieties  of  pins,  the  common  kind 
and  the  spring  kind  which  is  patented.  The  latter  are, 
of  course,  more  expensive. 

The  woods  used  for  pins  are  beech,  basswood,  maple, 
and  sometimes  birch,  elm,  and  ash.  The  clothes-pin 
industry  is  a  by-product  of  the  wood-working  industry, 
as  the  waste  bits  of  hard  wood  are  used  for  making 
them.  About  a  dozen  operations  are  required  alto- 
gether, first  turning  them  out  of  cubes  of  wood,  then 


140       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

slotting,  drying,  polishing,  finishing,  and  packing  them. 
Clothes-pins  must  be  smooth  so  as  not  to  tear  the 
clothes.     The  metal  in  the  patent  pins  must  be  non- 
rusting. 

Irons 

Irons  come  in  a  variety  of  shapes,  sizes,  and  weights 
according  to  the  use  to  which  they  are  to  be  put. 

Sad  irons  are  the  ordinary  irons  with  attached  han- 
dles. The  handles  of  some  styles  are  ventilated  to 
keep  them  cool.  These  irons  are  sold  by  weight,  rang- 
ing from  4  to  8  pounds.  The  usual  family  will  re- 
quire : 

I  8-lb.  iron  for  table  and  bed  linen 

I  6-lb.  iron  for  ordinary  garments 

I  3-  or  4-lb.  iron  for  thin  garments 
At  least  three  are  always  necessary  for  efficient  work. 
The  word  "  sad  *'  is  used  here  in  its  obsolete  mean- 
ing of  "  heavy." 

Irons  with  detachable  handles  are  convenient  be- 
cause the  irons  do  not  require  a  holder.  The  handles 
are  usually  of  wood,  sometimes  of  iron,  and  are  also 
sold  separately. 

Box  irons  are  hollow,  holding  pieces  of  heated  metal 
or  hot  charcoal,  which  are  slipped  in  at  the  wide  end 
and  held  by  a  spring.  They  are  easy  to  keep  clean. 
They  do  not  come  in  many  sizes.  The  heat  may  be 
regulated  by  a  damper. 


LAUNDRY  EQUIPMENT 


141 


Gas,  gasoline,  alcohol,  and  electric  irons  have  heat 
applied  in  various  ways  from  the  inside.  These  styles 
give  an  even,  continuous  heat,  save  steps,  and  can  be 
used  in  any  room. 

Flouncing  irons  are  narrow  with  long,  slender  points. 
They  are  convenient  for  gathering  and  shirring  the 
material. 

Polishing  irons  are  small,  chunky  irons  with  a  cor- 
rugated surface,  which  gives  more  friction  than  a 
smooth  one.  They  are  used  for  polishing  shirt  fronts, 
collars,  and  cuffs. 

Fluting  irons  have  two  fluted  surfaces,  one  fitting 
into  the  other.  The  ruffle  to  be  fluted  is  first  ironed 
smooth  and  then  laid,  a  section  at  a  time,  between  the 
heated  surfaces  of  the  fluting  iron. 

Goffering  irons  are  scissors-shaped  instruments  for 
plaiting  or  crimping. 

Puff  irons  are  egg-shaped  or  with  a  rounded  knob, 
over  which  puff  trimmings  can  be  passed. 

Irons  are  faced  with  steel  or  nickel.  Steel-faced 
ones  must  be  kept  in  a  dry  place  to  prevent  rusting.  If 
they  are  to  be  stored  for  any  length  of  time  they  should 
be  coated  with  a  thin  layer  of  grease  or  oil  to  prevent 
rusting. 

Ironing  stands  are  frames  to  keep  irons  from  resting 
on  the  ironing  sheet. 

Iron  heaters  are  sold  for  use  over  a  single  gas  burner. 
They  are  cast  iron  plates,  either  round  or  square,  with 


M  V'4 


142        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

a  ventilated  edge.  They  distribute  the  heat  more 
evenly  and  prevent  the  irons  from  being  smutted  by 
contact  with  the  flame. 

Ironing  Boards 

There  are  several  varieties  of  ironing  boards,  each 
adapted  to  its  particular  purpose. 

They  may  be  either  in  the  form  of  strong  and  steady 
tables,  or  they  may  be  single  boards  to  be  placed  upon 
supports  as  desired. 

The  tables  are  of  either  hard  cr  soft  wood,  usually 
adjustable  to  three  different  heights,  and  folding.  The 
frames  may  be  of  steel,  which  is  very  strong  and  pre- 
vents wabbling,  or  of  wood. 

The  regulation  board  is  from  5  to  6  feet  long,  and 
2V2  feet  wide  at  its  widest  end.  This  may  be  used  for 
all  purposes.  Boards  also  come  in  small  sizes,  3,  3^2, 
4»  or  4%  feet  long. 

Skirt  hoards  are  convenient  for  pressing  skirts. 
They  are  from  3  to  6  feet  long  and  from  6  to  18  inches 
wide. 

Sleeve  hoards  are  small,  narrow  boards  mounted  at 
one  end  on  a  stand,  thus  allowing  the  sleeve  to  be 
slipped  over  the  board.  In  using  the  board  the  sleeve 
should  be  pulled  over  so  that  the  cuff  is  at  the  small 
end  of  the  board  and  the  seam  at  the  edge.  As  the 
sleeve  is  ironed  it  is  pulled  over.  These  boards  are 
useful  in  ironing  many  small  garments. 


LAUNDRY  EQUIPMENT 


143 


Bosom  or  shirt  hoards  for  ironing  men's  shirts  pre- 
vent the  interference  of  the  back  and  the  front  of  the 
shirt  while  it  is  being  ironed.  They  come  in  two  sizes, 
12x8,  and  18x10  inches.  They  are  of  very  hard 
wood  so  that  the  surface  of  the  piece  being  ironed  will 
take  a  high  polish. 

All  ironing  boards  must  be  well  padded  and  covered. 
The  woods  from  which  they  are  made  are  cypress,  Cot- 
tonwood, spruce,  basswood,  and  white  pine.  (See 
Chapter  VI.)  The  frames  of  ironing  tables  are  of 
maple. 

Clothes  Horses 

Clothes  horses  are  racks  upon  which  clothes  are  hung 
to  air.  One  variety  has  two  or  three  folds  of  ladder- 
like racks.  The  wood  must  be  smoothly  finished  so  as 
not  to  catch  and  tear  the  clothes.  A  good  size  is  5  to 
6  feet  high,  with  each  fold  2j/$  feet  wide. 

Another  variety  is  collapsible.  When  spread  out  it 
stands  firmly  on  the  floor,  and  holds  a  great  many 
clothes.  When  folded  together  it  takes  very  little 
space. 

Curtain  Stretchers 

Curtain  stretchers  are  adjustable,  light  wooden 
frames,  usually  of  basswood,  fitted  with  either  sta- 
tionary or  movable  pins  for  holding  curtains  tight 
while  they  are  drying.     Lace  or  net  curtains  should 


I  WfWm 


144        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

never  be  ironed,  as  they  stretch  and  pull  out  of  shape. 
The  curtain  stretchers  make  them  dry  evenly.  The 
pins  must  be  of  some  non-rusting  material,  usually 
brass,  nickel-plated.  The  stretchers  come  2  and  4 
yards  long. 


Chapter  XIII 

IMPLEMENTS  FOR  THE  SINK 

Stock 

The  implements  necessary  for  dish-washing  and 
dish-drying  and  other  uses  in  the  sink  are  few  and 
simple.     They  consist  of: 

Dishpans 

Draining  pans 

Dish  mops  and  cloths 

Pot  cleaners 

Soap  dishes  and  shakers 

Wash  basins 

Sink  strainers 

Sink  brushes  and  shovels 

Dishpans 

Dishpans  are  made  of  fiber,  tinned  ware,  enameled 
ware,  and  aluminum.  They  are  either  round  or  oval 
and  come  in  a  number  of  sizes.  Oval  pans  are  espe- 
cially desirable  in  small  sinks,  as  they  utilize  the  space 
best. 

The  pans  in  which  dishes  are  washed  are  larger  and 

145 


146       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

deeper  than  those  used  for  rinsing  and  drying.  The 
larger  sizes  can  also  be  used  for  canning  and  cooking 
purposes. 

A  special  make  found  in  many  stores  consists  of  a 
rectangular,  heavy  tin  pan,  with  four  removable  rubber 
legs,  which  raise  the  pan  from  the  sink  and  thus  pro- 
tect the  sink  bottom.  In  the  bottom  of  the  pan  is  a 
rubber  stopper,  and  when  this  is  removed  the  dish- 
water flows  out  through  a  strainer  which  slides  in  and 
out  under  the  pan  like  a  drawer  and  can  be  easily  re- 
moved for  cleaning. 

Draining  Pans 
There  are  three  varieties  of  draining  pans : 
Simple  wire  baskets. 

Baskets  having  racks  upon  which  plates  may  rest. 
Galvanized  iron  pans  with  heavy  wire  racks  in 
which  dishes  may  be  placed  so  that  they  do  not 
touch. 

If  dishes  are  rinsed  in  very  hot  water  before  being 
put  into  the  draining  pan,  they  need  not  be  wiped,  as 
they  will  dry  naturally.  Silver,  however,  should  al- 
ways  he  wiped  by  hand.  Unless  the  dishes  are  ar- 
ranged so  that  they  do  not  touch  one  another  in  the 
pan,  they  are  likely  to  be  streaked  and  spotted. 

Dish  Mops  and  Cloths 
Dish  mops  are  made  of  cotton  waste  with  wooden  or 


IMPLEMENTS  FOR  THE  SINK 


147 


wire  handles.  Some  women  prefer  dish  mops  to  dish 
cloths  because  they  cannot  easily  be  used  for  any  other 
purpose  than  dish-washing.  Mops  also  save  the  hands. 
They  should  be  thoroughly  washed  after  each  use. 

Dish  cloths  are  made  of  loose-meshed  cloth  which 
will  not  hold  food  particles  and  washes  easily. 

Pot  Cleaners 

Pot  cleaners  are  of  several  kinds.  One  style  is  of 
woven  or  of  knitted  cloth  with  copper  tinsel  woven  in, 
the  sharp  edges  of  which  act  like  knives.  These  can 
be  used  on  all  kinds  of  ware,  but  it  is  not  wise  to  use 
them  on  tinned  ware,  as  they  are  likely  to  scratch  off 
the  coating  of  tin  and  thus  expose  the  iron  to  rust. 

The  wire  ring  pot  cleaners  are  not  so  sharp  as  the 
copper  tinsel  variety,  but  are  especially  good  for  heavy 
pots. 

Plate  scrapers  are  flat  rubber  pieces  used  to  scrape 
food  particles  from  dishes  before  washing. 

Still  another  style  is  a  small  metal  plate  with  a  sharp 
knifelike  edge. 


Soap  Dishes  and  Shakers 

Dishes  for  holding  the  soap  are  made  either  to  rest 
on  a  flat  surface  or  to  be  fastened  to  the  wall  over  the 
sink.  They  are  usually  of  enameled  ware  or  of  wire, 
sometimes  of  galvanized  ware,  and  are  usually  pro- 


148        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

vided  with  a  removable  perforated  tray  upon  which 
the  soap  rests. 

Soap  shakers  for  making  soap-suds  in  the  dishpan 
are  wire  mesh  containers,  either  square  or  round,  with 
wire  handles.  Small  pieces  of  soap  which  would 
otherwise  be  wasted  can  thus  be  utilized. 

Wash  Basins 

Basins  for  sink  use  are  found  in  both  tinned  and 
enameled  ware,  sometimes  in  galvanized  ware,  in  a 
large  number  of  sizes. 

Sink  Strainers 

Triangular  sink  strainers  of  wire,  or  of  perforated 
enameled  ware,  are  used  by  many  housekeepers,  being 
placed  in  the  comer  of  the  sink  for  catching  bits  of 

food  which  might  otherwise  cause  a  stoppage  in  the 
pipes. 

Sink  Brushes  and  Shovels 

Special  brushes  for  sink-cleaning  purposes  are  made 
of  the  stiff  palmyra,  bassine,  or  union  fibers.  It  is  very 
important  that  sink  brushes  be  sanitary ;  and  one  style, 
somewhat  the  shape  of  a  whisk  broom,  is  made  without 
any  cement,  so  that  it  can  be  boiled.  A  shovel  is  often 
attached  to  the  handle.  Short-handled  shovels  of  gal- 
vanized iron  are  also  used  in  cleaning  the  sink. 


Part  III  —Special  Articles 


Chapter  XIV 


REFRIGERATORS 

Principle  of  Refrigeration 

One  of  the  first  things  to  be  learned  in  studying  a 
refrigerator  is  that  its  looks  have  nothing  whatever  to 
do  with  its  efficiency.  The  purpose  of  a  refrigerator 
is  to  keep  food  fresh.  It  does  this  by  means  of  a  low 
temperature,  which  is  supplied  by  melting  ice.  Melt- 
ing ice  cools  the  air  because  some  of  the  warmth  of  the 
air  is  abstracted  in  the  process  of  melting.  Therefore 
the  first  essential  of  refrigeration  is  a  low  temperature. 
The  second  is  construction  that  will  maintain  that  tem- 
perature. 

The  principle  upon  which  refrigerators  are  con- 
structed is  the  same  as  that  of  the  fireless  cooker  and 
the  thermos  bottle  —  namely,  to  surround  the  enclosed 
air  with  insulating  material,  so  that  the  outer  air  can- 
not reach  it. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  a  refrigerator  may  be  a  beau- 
tiful piece  of  ornamental  furniture  and  yet  may  be 

149 


1 1 


ill 


150        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

utterly  lacking  in  these  two  essentials.  It  is  noticeable 
also  that  customers  quite  generally  are  attracted  by  the 
appearance  rather  than  the  construction  of  this  piece 
of  household  furniture. 

Styles 

Despite  the  numerous  varieties  and  makes  of  re- 
frigerators on  the  market  today,  all  can  be  grouped 
into  one  or  the  other  of  two  styles,  side-icing  and  top- 
icing. 

In  the  top-icing  style  the  compartment  which  holds 
the  ice  extends  across  the  entire  top  of  the  refrigerator. 
Because  of  its  proportionately  narrow  width,  the  top- 
icing  style  takes  up  less  room  and  is  therefore  suit- 
able for  apartment  house  use,  or  for  small  houses 
where  space  is  limited.  In  this  style  the  ice  compart- 
ment is  very  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  re- 
frigerator and  is  therefore  suitable  for  use  where  the 
daily  ice  supply  is  irregular,  as  in  the  country.  It  also 
permits  bottled  water  and  milk  to  be  placed  next  the 
ice.  In  some  top-icing  styles  the  cover  of  the  ice  cham- 
ber lifts  up ;  in  others  there  are  one  or  two  doors.  Less 
cold  air  escapes  when  a  cover  is  lifted  than  when  doors 
are  opened,  but  otherwise  this  style  is  less  convenient. 

In  the  side-icing  style  the  ice  compartment  occupies 
only  a  part  of  the  top  space,  but  is  deeper  than  in  the 
top-icing  style.  One  advantage  of  this  type  is  that  the 
ice  does  not  have  to  be  lifted  to  any  great  height  and 


REFRIGERATORS 


151 


' 


so  there  is  less  danger  of  its  being  thrown  into  the 
chamber.  It  is  important  that  the  space  beneath  the  ice 
chamber  in  the  provision  chamber,  the  coldest  part  of 
the  refrigerator,  be  deep  enough  to  hold  a  bottle  of 
milk. 

Ice  Chests 

Ice  chests,  in  which  the  ice  and  food  are  placed  in 
the  same  compartment,  are  used  in  some  households 
and  by  those  who  have  a  large  quantity  of  one  variety 
of  food  to  keep  —  grocers,  restaurant-keepers,  etc. 
There  is  no  circulation  of  air  in  an  ice  chest. 

Circulation  of  Air  Currents 

The  efficiency  of  a  refrigerator  depends  upon  the 
circulation  of  air  in  it. 

Cold  air  is  heavier  and  smaller  in  volume  than  warm 
air.  Therefore  the  air  cooled  by  the  ice  falls  to  the 
bottom,  passing  under  the  ice  rack  and  through  the 
cold  air  flues.  When  the  doors  are  closed  this  creates 
a  suction  at  the  top  of  the  ice  chamber,  which  draws 
the  air  in  from  the  top  of  the  provision  chamber  and 
leaves  room  for  the  cold  air  to  flow  into  the  bottom  of 
the  provision  chamber.  This  happens  in  any  style  of 
refrigerator,  but  its  action  may  be  accelerated  by  the 
construction. 

In  the  side-icing  style  the  cold  air  falls  from  the 
side  ice  chamber  to  the  bottom  of  the  refrigerator.     It 


?a1 


M 


152        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

pushes  before  it  the  warm 
air,  which  must  go  into 
the  only  place  there  is  for 
it,  the  other  side  chamber. 
The  warm  air  rises  and 
must  pass  then  across  the 
ice  chamber,  where  it  in 
turn  becomes  cooled  by 
the  ice  and  falls  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  refrigerator. 
In  this  way  a  continuous 
circulation  is  maintained. 

Courtesy  of  Alaska  Refrigerator  Co.  ^"     ^^^     tOp-icing     Style 

Figure  6.     Circulation  of  Air  in    ^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^  ^^^^^  a  greater 


Top- Icing  Style  of  Re- 
frigerator 


distance  at  once  and  the 
circulation  is  very  rapid 
and  marked.  The  warm  air  rises  through  flues  at  the 
end  and  the  back  of  the  ice  chamber.  Figure  6  shows 
these  currents  of  air. 

Placing  of  Foods 

When  the  circulation  of  air  in  the  refrigerator  is 
understood  it  is  easy  to  see  why  foods  should  be  placed 
in  certain  places. 

In  the  side-icing  style,  for  instance,  milk,  butter, 
cream,  or  any  other  food  which  absorbs  odors  readily, 
should  be  placed  directly  beneath  the  ice  where  the  cold 


REFRIGERATORS 


153 


air  passes  first  after  its  cooling  and  before  it  has  had 
time  to  absorb  any  odor  from  other  food. 

Beside  the  milk  and  other  foods  of  this  type,  and  at 
the  bottom  of  the  large  provision  side,  may  be  placed 
foods  of  a  neutral  nature,  such  as  meats,  etc.  Foods 
with  a  strong  flavor,  such  as  fish,  fruits,  vegetables, 
etc.,  should  be  placed  on  the  top  shelf  whence  the  air 
will  return  to  the  ice  compartment.  There  the  con- 
densation of  the  warm  air  on  the  ice  causes  the  absorp- 
tion of  odors,  which  are  really  particles  of  food. 
These  pass  off  in  the  drip  water  and  are  afterwards 
found  accumulated  in  the  waste  pipe  and  trap  as  slime. 

The  middle  shelf  is  the  proper  place  for  left-overs 
from  the  table. 

In  a  top-icing  style  of  refrigerator  a  similar  arrange- 
ment should  be  followed  —  milk,  butter,  etc.,  on  the 
top  shelf,  neutral  foods  on  the  middle,  and  strong- 
flavored  foods  at  the  bottom. 

Since  the  air  which  flows  into  the  ice  chamber  is 
loaded  with  odors,  no  uncovered  food  should  ever  be 
placed  in  that  compartment.  Tightly  closed  bottles 
may  be  placed  next  to  the  ice. 

Insulation 

The  manufacturer's  provision  for  maintaining  the 
low  temperature  is  by  good  insulation,  that  is,  sur- 
rounding the  walls  with  material  which  will  not  con- 
duct the  heat.     Upon  the  number  and  character  of  the 


154        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

layers  depends  the  efficiency  of  the  insulation.  If  the 
walls  could  be  perfectly  insulated  they  would  not  ab- 
sorb heat;  and  if  the  box  could  be  kept  closed  per- 
manently the  ice  would  melt  until  the  temperature 
was  freezing,  and  would  remain  there  forever.  But 
there  is  no  such  thing  as  perfect  insulation,  as  even  in 
the  very  best  refrigerators  a  small  amount  of  heat  en- 
ters through  the  opened  doors  and  through  unprevent- 
able  small  spaces  between  the  insulating  material. 

Sawdust,  charcoal,  mineral  wool,  felt,  vegetable 
fiber,  granulated  cork,  together  with  dead  air  cham- 
bers, are  used  for  insulation.  The  materials  should 
be  packed  tightly  to  prevent  circulation  of  air  cur- 
rents within  the  insulating  material  itself. 

One  to  two  and  a  half  inches,  not  including  the 
wooden  case  and  lining  of  the  refrigerator,  insure  fair 
insulation.  The  best  refrigerators  have  from  eight 
to  twelve  layers.  One  well-known  make  has  the  fol- 
lowing layers  : 

Porcelain  enamel  lining 

Inside  wood  lining 

3-ply  red  rope  water-proof  paper 

Wool  felt  deafening  paper 

Fiber  insulation 

Dead  air  space 

Fiber  insulation 


WOOD 

WOOL    fELT 

AIR    SPACE 

SHEATHtNG 

COCOA    FIBRE 

SHCATHING 

WOOL     FELT 

WATCnpftOOF    PArCR 

WOOD 

SHCATHIMC 

AIR  space: 

PORCELAIN 


Courtesy  of  Grand   Rapids  Refrigerator  Co, 
Figure  7,     Layers  of  Insulation  in  the  Walls  of  a  Refrigerator 


11 


REFRIGERATORS 


155 


<i 


Mi 


Wool  felt 

3-ply  red  rope  water-proof  paper 

Outside  wooden  case 

All  the  best  makes  have  a  "  dead  air  "  space,  that 
is,  a  small  air-tight  compartment  in  the  midst  of  the 
insulation.  Air  is  a  very  poor  conductor  of  heat. 
Figure  7  shows  this  air  space  and  the  layers  of  insula- 
tion. 

In  painted  lined  refrigerators  it  is  particularly  im- 
portant that  the  insulating  material  be  non-absorbent, 
as  moisture  lowers  the  efficiency  of  insulating  material, 
and  thus  in  time  the  wooden  cases  are  warped. 

A  good  refrigerator  well  filled  with  ice  should  easily 
maintain  a  temperature  of  40°  to  42°  F.  If  it  does 
not  do  this  there  is  something  wrong  with  the  insula- 
tion. Medium  grades  maintain  a  temperature  not 
lower  than  50°,  and  poor  ones  probably  not  less  than 
60°. 

It  is  important  that  the  outer  case  be  tightly  joined 
to  prevent  the  admission  of  warm  air.  The  best  joints 
are  the  tongue  and  groove  kind.     (See  Chapter  VI.) 

Frames 

The  frame  of  a  refrigerator  is  not  usually  seen.  It 
is  an  important  part  of  the  article,  however,  just  as 
important  as  the  frame  of  a  house.     In  fact,  refrig- 


156        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

erators  are  built  in  much  the  same  way  as  a  house. 
The  frame  work  is  first  erected,  and  the  outer  and 
inner  casing  built  upon  it. 

It  is  essential  that  the  frames  be  strong,  and  there- 
fore hemlock  and  shortleaf  pine  are  the  woods  most 
often  used,  as  they  are  exceedingly  tough. 

Material  of  Outer  Cases 

The  outer  case  of  a  refrigerator  is  made  of  wood, 
porcelain,  or  steel.  Wood  is  the  most  frequently 
used;  porcelain  and  steel  are  newer  and  more  expen- 
sive materials. 

Oak,  ash,  and  pine  are  the  woods  used.  In  the 
higher-priced  refrigerators  oak  is  used  because  of  its 
beauty.  Ash  is  found  in  the  medium-jjriced  ones. 
When  finished  and  stained  it  closely  resembles  oak. 
Pine  is  the  least  expensive.  It  is  usually  grained  and 
painted  in  imitation  of  either  ash  or  oak.  As  pine  is 
able  to  withstand  dampness  far  better  than  are  hard 
oak  and  ash,  it  is  very  satisfactory  for  refrigerators 
which  are  to  stand  in  a  damp  place  such  as  a  cellar. 

White  porcelain  cases  are  very  attractive  and  dura- 
ble if  given  the  proper  attention.  Porcelain  is  very 
hard,  so  that  it  will  not  scratch ;  very  smooth,  so  that 
dirt  does  not  cling  to  it  easily;  and  is  also  non- 
absorbent.  The  liquid  porcelain  is  fused  onto  the  steel 
case  at  a  very  high  temperature  so  that  the  two  materi- 
als are  practically  one. 


REFRIGERATORS 


157 


All-steel  refrigerators  are  made  of  galvanized  steel 
within  and  without.  The  joints  must  be  soldered  air- 
and  water-tight.  The  outside  of  the  case  is  often 
coated  with  a  white  enamel.  These  refrigerators  are 
used  on  boats,  or  at  the  seashore,  or  wherever  it  is 
very  damp. 

Construction  of  Case 

Wherever  the  wood  in  the  wooden  cases  is  joined, 
as  in  panels,  doors,  comers,  edges,  it  is  tongued  and 
grooved  and  glued  in  addition.  The  tighter  the  joints 
are,  the  less  danger  there  is  of  warm  air  leaking  into 
the  inside  space. 

In  the  more  expensive  refrigerators  the  wood  in  the 
outside  cases  is  as  carefully  matched  and  as  artistically 
set  as  in  any  piece  of  furniture. 

Rounded  corners  and  edges  are  better  since  they  do 
not  hold  dust. 

Ice  Chamber 

A  refrigerator  is  built  to  scale  with  a  certain  sized 
ice  chamber  according  to  the  size  of  the  refrigerator. 
This  chamber  should  be  kept  filled  with  ice  if  the  re- 
frigerator is  to  give  any  sort  of  satisfaction.  For 
instance,  if  a  chamber  is  built  to  hold  100  lbs.  of  ice, 
a  25-lb.  piece  cannot  keep  the  refrigerator  at  the  proper 
temperature  and  it  therefore  melts  faster  in  proportion 
than  a  larger  piece  would. 


i 


158        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

Galvanized  steel  is  the  universal  lining  material  for 
ice  chambers  because  of  its  strength  and  non-rusting 
properties.  The  joints  in  this  lining  must  be  water- 
tight to  prevent  ice  from  leaking  through  the  insula- 
tion. 

The  removable  galvanized  steel  rack  upon  which  the 
ice  rests  should  be  set  up  high  enough  from  the  bottom 
of  the  chamber  to  allow  a  free  circulation  of  air  under- 
neath, as  the  cold  air  flue  leading  into  the  provision 
chamber  is  beneath  the  rack. 

In  many  houses  it  is  possible  to  have  the  refrigerator 
located  against  an  outside  wall,  so  that  by  cutting  an 
extra  door  in  the  back  or  end  of  the  refrigerator,  and 
a  corresponding  door  in  the  wall  of  the  house,  the  ice 
can  be  placed  in  the  refrigerator  from  the  outside,  thus 
doing  away  with  the  necessity  of  the  ice  man's  enter- 
ing the  house.  This  extra  door  must  be  as  carefully 
made  as  the  others,  and  orders  taken  for  the  work 
by  the  salespersons  are  usually  filled  by  the  manufac- 
turers. 

Provision  Chambers 

The  requisites  for  the  lining  of  the  provision  cham- 
ber are  that  it  must  not  retain  moisture  or  odors,  and 
must  show  dirt  or  stains  at  once.  In  other  words,  that 
it  must  be  sanitary. 

The  materials  which  satisfy  this  requirement  are : 


REFRIGERATORS 


159 


Galvanized  steel 
Enameled  steel 


Porcelain 
Opal  glass 

Porcelain  is  a  very  sanitary  lining  for  the  reasons 
mentioned  in  connection  with  its  use  for  cases. 

Opal  glass  is  a  heavy,  opaque,  perfectly  white  glass 
with  a  highly  polished  surface  to  which  grease  or  dirt 
does  not  easily  cling. 

Galvanized  steel  is  next  in  point  of  satisfaction  to 
porcelain  or  glass.     It  does  not  rust. 

Paint-enameled  steel  is  attractive,  but  it  has  the 
disadvantage  of  scratching  easily,  thus  exposing  the 
steel  to  rusting.  If  this  occurs  and  the  insulating 
material  becomes  dampened,  the  effectiveness  of  the 
refrigerator  is  lost. 

All  corners  of  the  lining  should  be  rounded  to  pre- 
vent the  accumulation  of  food  particles.  In  the  better 
grades  where  porcelain  or  opal  glass  is  used  for  lining, 
the  lining  is  made  in  one  seamless  piece.  The  steel 
tank  is  first  made  in  the  required  size  and  shape,  and 
then  the  porcelain  applied  to  it.  When  the  lining  is 
put  into  the  refrigerator  in  sheets,  moisture  will  not 
work  through  the  joints  if  the  edges  of  the  sheets  are 
flanged  or  rimmed  and  overlapped. 

Shelves  and  Trimmings 

Shelves  are  removable  to  insure  ease  of  cleaning. 
Tinned  or  galvanized  woven  wire  ones  are  the  most 


! 
I  - 


l6o        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

satisfactory,  as  they  allow  a  free  circulation  of  air. 
Clasps  and  hinges  should  be  of  brass,  or  nickel- 
plated,  or  of  some  other  non-rusting  metal,  not  only 
for  appearance,  but  for  service.  Automatic  locks 
which  lock  the  doors  as  soon  as  they  close  are  a  help 
in  saving  ice. 

Casters  are  more  satisfactory  if  they  are  ball-bear- 
ing. A  ball-bearing  socket  is  one  in  which  the  shaft 
rests  upon  balls,  each  loose  and  turning  with  the  shaft. 
This  lessens  friction  and  insures  an  easy  movement. 

Traps 

The  best  refrigerator  traps  are  fitted  with  syphons 
which  prevent  the  escape  of  cold  air  or  the  entrance 
of  warm  air  through  the  pipe.  These  add  greatly  to 
the  efficiency  of  a  refrigerator. 

The  drain  pipes  should  be  of  some  non-rusting 
material. 

Refrigerator  Pans 

Most  modern  houses  are  equipped  with  a  special 
drain  for  carrying  oflF  the  drip  water  from  the  refrig- 
erator. In  cases  where  there  is  no  such  provision  a 
separate,  shallow,  wide-topped,  galvanized  iron  pan  is 
sold  for  the  purpose. 

Care 

Manufacturers  have  realized  that  the  first  requisite 


REFRIGERATORS 


l6i 


in  the  care  of  a  refrigerator  is  absolute  cleanliness. 
Therefore  refrigerators  are  made  so  as  to  be  very 

easily  cleaned. 

It  is  essential  that  they  be  given  a  thorough  cleanmg 
at  least  once  a  week  with  a  solution  of  borax,  wash- 
ing soda,  ammonia,  etc.  There  should  be  no  crevices 
where  filth  can  accumulate.  Wire  swabs  and  brushes 
are  provided  for  cleaning  the  drain  pipe.  Ice  should 
be  rinsed  off  before  being  put  in. 

Food  should  not  be  put  into  the  refrigerator  while 
warm,  as  this  raises  the  temperature  and  lowers  the 
efficiency  of  the  chamber. 

Refrigerator  doors  should  be  closed  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible after  opening  to  prevent  the  loss  of  cold  air  and 
the  entrance  of  warm. 

Ice  should  never  be  wrapped  in  paper  or  a  cloth. 
The  ice  can  cool  the  refrigerator  only  by  its  melting 
and  any  wrapping  retards  this. 

A  refrigerator  should  not  be  placed  in  the  sun,  or 
near  a  stove.  Neither  should  a  wooden  one  be  placed 
out  of  doors  or  in  a  very  damp  place  where  the  wood 
will  warp,  cause  the  joints  to  open,  and  thus  destroy 

the  circulation. 

Sometimes  customers  may  complain  that  a  refrig- 
erator leaks,  when  it  does  not  leak  at  all.  The  ap- 
pearance may  be  caused,  especially  in  warm  weather, 
by  the  condensation  of  warm  air  on  the  coldest  part  of 
the  refrigerator. 


1 62        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 
Selling  Suggestions 

A  supply  of  imitation  goods,  such  as  milk  and  cream 
jars,  butter,  vegetables,  meats,  etc.,  is  very  useful  in 
demonstrating  the  capacity  or  arrangement  of  foods 
in  a  refrigerator.  Such  a  display  will  often  arrest  the 
attention  of  a  customer,  and  cause  her  to  stop  to  hear 
a  demonstration. 

Either  a  cross-section  of  the  insulation  of  a  refrig- 
erator or  an  illustration  or  diagram  of  this  is  essen- 
tial in  demonstrating  a  refrigerator. 

The  saleswoman  should  be  able  to  tell  the  ice  ca- 
pacity of  the  various  refrigerators  in  the  department 
and  also  the  amount  of  ice  consumed  daily,  for  this  is 
the  first  thing  a  customer  will  want  to  know. 

Summary  of  Selling  Points 
The  essential  features  of  any  refrigerator  are: 

1.  Good  insulation 

2.  Good  circulation  of  air 

3.  Ease  with  which  it  may  be  cleaned 

Iceless  Refrigerators 

Small-sized  iceless  refrigerators  are  popular  for  use 
where  the  daily  ice  supply  is  uncertain.  They  are  made 
of  porous  earthenware  which  is  kept  moist.  They 
depend  on  the  principle  of  cooling  by  evaporation. 


Chapter  XV 

ICE-CREAM  FREEZERS 

Varieties 

There  are  two  distinct  styles  of  ice-cream  freezers : 
those  which  require  turning,  and  those  which  do  not. 

Freezers  Operated  by  Crank 

The  freezers  which  require  turning  have  the  follow- 
ing parts: 

1.  An  outside  tub  for  holding  the  ice 

2.  A  can  for  the  cream,  revolved  by  a  crank 

3.  A  dasher  fitted  inside  the  can 

The  outside  tub  may  be  of  wood  or  of  metal.  If  it 
is  of  wood  it  must  be  of  a  kmd  which  stands  damp- 
ness well,  such  as  pine.  It  should  be  well  seasoned 
to  prevent  warping,  and  the  staves  should  fit  snugly 
to  insure  a  strong,  water-tight  pail.  The  staves  of 
some  wooden  tubs  are  held  by  flat  hoops,  those  of  oth- 
ers by  round  hoops.  The  round  ones  hold  better 
when  there  is  a  groove  into  which  they  fit.  All  hoops 
should  be  galvanized  to  prevent  warping.  In  making 
the  wooden  tubs  the  parts  of  the  freezer  are  assembled 
individually,  and,  because  of  slight  variations  in  the 

163 


1 


l64        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

castings,  gears,  etc.,  the  tub  is  shaved  off  here  and 
there  until  the  whole  apparatus  is  properly  adjusted 
to  run  smoothly. 

The  metal  tubs  are  of  galvanized  steel. 
The  can  for  the  cream  must  be  of  some  material 
which  will  not  make  poisonous  compounds  when  in 
contact  with  the  cream.     Heavy  tin  plate  is  ordinarily 
used.     It  IS  essential  that  the  can  be  very  strong  be- 
cause if  ,t  becomes  at  all  bent  the  scrapers  will'  not 
work.     The  top  also  needs  to  be  rigid  to  keep  it  from 
bending  when  the  user  bears  down  with  a  spoon  on  the 
edge  to  dig  out  the  cream.     It  is  therefore  an  advan- 
tage to  have  the  top  reinforced  with  heavy  wire     A 
pressed  steel  bottom  is  very  strong. 

The  cover  of  the  can  must  fit  very  closely  so  that 
the  ice  and  salt  will  not  reach  the  cream.  The  gears 
should  be  covered  to  prevent  pinching  the  fingers 

Dashers  differ  according  to  the  construction  of  the 
freezer,—  whether  the  action  is  double  or  single. 

In  the  double-action  freezers  the  dasher  turns  in 
the  opposite  direction  from  the  can.  It  has  wood 
scrapers,  working  on  small  hinges  which  remove  the 
cream  from  the  sides  of  the  can  as  fast  as  it  freezes 
and  pass  it  to  the  inside.  The  central  shaft  of  the 
dasher  has  projecting  "  floats,"  spoonlike  pieces  of 
metal,  which  beat  and  throw  the  cream  to  the  outside 
of  the  can.  This  action  brings  the  coldest  part  of  the 
cream  to  the  center,  and  removes  the  softest  part  to 


ICECREAM  FREEZERS 


i6s 


the  sides  where  it  is  frozen.  A  continuous  motion  is 
thus  set  up. 

In  the  single-action  freezers  the  dasher  remains  sta- 
tionary, and  only  the  can  revolves.  This  style  re- 
quires fewer  parts  and  less  workmanship,  and  is  there- 
fore less  expensive.  The  cans  and  tubs  are  usually 
similar  to  those  in  the  double-action  type. 

Recently  a  freezer  in  which  two  kinds  of  cream  or 
sherbet  may  be  frozen  has  come  into  the  market.  The 
can  is  divided  into  two  parts;  the  partition  projects 
above  the  top  of  the  can  and  touches  the  lid  so  that 
there  is  no  danger  of  the  contents  mixing.  There  are 
dashers  in  each  partition,  and  these  work  backward 
and  forward,  making  half  a  revolution  in  each  direc- 
tion. The  handle  is  rocked  back  and  forth  instead  of 
being  turned. 

Freezers  are  made  in  the  following  sizes:  toy,  i,  2, 
3,  4,  6,  8,  10,  12,  14,  15,  and  20  quarts.  The  larger 
sizes  are  used  in  hotels,  restaurants,  and  by  confec- 
tioners. This  type  of  freezer  is  operated  by  power 
generated  by  means  of  a  fly-wheel  instead  of  a  crank. 

Crankless  Freezers 

The  construction  of  the  crankless  freezer  is  quite 
different  from  that  of  the  type  just  described.  This 
style  makes  a  very  neat,  clean  implement. 

It  consists  of  a  single  can  which  has  three  compart- 
ments : 


l66        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

1.  An  inner  compartment  for  the  cream 

2.  A  surrounding  compartment  for  the  ice 

3.  A  double  wall  with  air  space  around  the  entire 

can 

The  compartments  for  the  cream  and  ice  must  ealch 
have  a  tightly  fitting  cover.  The  air  space  around  the 
can  prevents  heat  from  entering  the  freezer  or  cold 
from  leaving  it.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  miniature  refrig- 
erator. 

These  freezers  require  a  longer  time  to  freeze  the 
cream  than  does  the  other  variety.  The  claim  is  made 
that  this  longer  time  makes  the  cream  as  smooth  as 
the  beating  in  the  shorter  process. 

Ice  Chippers 

These  are  implements  with  steel  teeth  for  reducing 
a  cake  of  ice  to  small  pieces  for  use  in  the  freezer. 
The  advantage  of  their  use  is  that  they  save  the  ice 
by  cutting  it  into  uniform  pieces,  instead  of  the  uneven 
chunks  ol)tained  when  ice  is  pounded  with  a  mallet  in 
a  bag.  Moreover,  the  chipped  ice  packs  more  solidly 
around  the  can  and  shortens  the  time  of  freezing. 
These  implements  are  also  useful  in  chipping  ice  for 
cold  drinks  or  other  foods. 

Principles  of  Freezing 

Freezing  cream  depends  on  the  reaction  which  takes 
place  when   ice  and   salt  are  mixed.     Whenever  ice 


ICE-CREAM  FREEZERS 


167 


melts  it  withdraws  heat  from  the  surrounding  sub- 
stances. In  an  ice-cream  freezer  the  ice  withdraws 
heat  from  the  cream.  Salt  simply  makes  the  ice  melt 
faster  than  it  would  by  itself.  There  are  other  sub- 
stances which  will  do  this,  but  salt  is  the  cheapest  and 
most  common.  The  rate  at  which  the  ice  melts  de- 
pends upon  the  amount  of  salt  used ;  the  more  salt  the 
faster  the  action.  If  too  much  is  used,  the  cream  will 
be  coarse-grained.  Careful  experiments  have  shown 
that  the  best  proportion  is  three  parts  ice  to  one  part 
salt.  For  ices,  frappes,  etc.,  where  it  is  desirable  that 
the  dessert  have  a  granular  texture,  two  parts  of  ice 
to  one  part  of  salt  is  satisfactory. 

Directions  for  Use 

The  salesperson  should  be  able  to  tell  the  customer 
how  to  use  the  freezer,  even  though  directions  are  sup- 
plied by  the  manufacturer. 

For  the  freezers  operated  by  a  crank:  Scald  can, 
cover,  and  dasher,  and  then  chill  them.  Place  the  can 
in  the  freezer,  put  in  the  dasher,  and  pour  in  the  cream. 
Fill  only  three- fourths  full,  as  cream  expands  in  freez- 
ing. Cover  and  adjust  the  top.  Turn  the  crank  to  be 
sure  that  the  can  fits  in  the  socket.  Fill  the  space  with 
the  mixture  of  salt  and  ice,  and  cover  the  can  with  it. 
Turn  the  crank  slowly  at  first,  adding  more  salt  and 
ice  if  necessary.  After  freezing  draw  oflf  the  water, 
remove  the  dasher,  push  down  the  cream  solidly  with 


u 


l68       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

a  spoon  and  repack,  using  four  parts  of  ice  to  one  of 
salt.     Cover  with  a  blanket. 

For  the  crankless  freezers  the  operation  is  very 
similar.  The  ice  space  is  filled  first  with  the  ice  and 
salt  in  the  same  proportion  as  for  the  other  freezers, 
and  the  cover  of  the  ice  chamber  fitted  on.  The  cream 
is  then  poured  into  the  cream  compartment,  and  the 
cover  placed  on.  Stand  the  freezer  with  the  cream 
end  up.  In  ten  minutes  reverse  and  let  it  stand  in  this 
position  for  the  rest  of  the  thirty  minutes. 

The  Appeal  of  Ice-Cream 

There  is  no  other  dessert  with  such  a  universal  ap- 
peal as  ice-cream,  and  customers  are  always  eager  to 
learn  new  recipes  and  methods  of  making  frozen  dain- 
ties. The  saleswoman  will  find  it  advantageous  to 
know  a  few  standard  recipes,  as  this  definite  informa- 
tion will  sometimes  so  appeal  to  the  customer  that  it 
will  clinch  a  sale  which  otherwise  might  be  lost.  She 
should  also  know  the  differences  between  the  various 
frozen  desserts. 

Ice-cream  is  made  of  flavored,  sweetened  cream 
which  is  usually  frozen  while  being  stirred.  This  is 
known  as  American  or  Philadelphia  ice-cream.  An- 
other form  known  as  French  or  Neapolitan  cream 
contains  eggs  in  addition  to  sugar  and  flavoring,  and  is 
cooked  in  a  double  boiler  first.  This  variety  is  espe- 
cially adapted  to  chocolate,  caramel,  or  nut  creams. 


ICE-CREAM  FREEZERS 


169 


Water  ice  is  sweetened  fruit  juice,  diluted  with 
water  and  frozen. 

Frappe  is  water  ice  frozen  to  the  consistency  of 
mush. 

Sherbet  is  a  water  ice,  to  which  a  small  quantity  of 
dissolved  gelatin  or  beaten  whites  of  eggs  has  been 
added.     Some  sherbets  are  also  made  with  milk. 

Frozen  fruit  is  fruit  pulp  that  has  been  frozen. 

Frozen  punch  is  a  water  ice  to  which  spirits  or  spices 
have  been  added  for  a  stronger  flavoring. 

Sorbet  is  really  frozen  punch. 

Mousse,  parfait,  and  biscuit  are  made  of  sweetened 
and  flavored  whipped  cream,  sometimes  with  the  addi- 
tion of  eggs  or  gelatin.  They  differ  from  ice-cream 
in  being  beaten  before  instead  of  during  freezing. 

Frozen  custards  are  thin  boiled  custards  frozen  to 
the  consistency  of  ice-cream. 

Another  suggestion  which  always  appeals  to  the  pro- 
spective purchaser  of  an  ice-cream  freezer  is  the  purity 
of  home-made  cream  versus  the  uncertainty  as  to  the 
cleanliness  and  the  ingredients  of  manufactured 
cream. 

History 

The  first  ice-cream  was  made  by  a  London  confec- 
tioner, Gunton.  It  was  introduced  into  America  by 
Dolly  Madison  at  a  White  House  reception  during  the 
administration  of  President  Madison.    The  method 


■}\ 


I70        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


used  by  the  English  confectioner  was  crude  and  un- 
certain, and  the  ice-cream  freezer  was  invented  by 
Nancy  Johnson,  the  wife  of  an  American  naval  officer. 
Today  the  ice-cream  business  has  grown  to  be  an 
enormous  industry.  It  has  been  estimated  that  during 
19 1 6  the  American  people  consumed  250.000,000  gal- 
lons of  ice-cream.  This  would  mean  an  average  con- 
sumption of  60  dishes  a  year  for  each  person. 

Summary  of  Selling  Points 

Although  each  freezer  has  its  distinctive  features,  to 
be  satisfactory  any  freezer  must  be: 

Dependably  constructed 
Easily  operated 
Economical  in  the  use  of  ice 


Chapter  XVI 

FIRELESS  COOKERS 

Increasing  Popularity  of  the  Fireless  Cooker 

One  of  the  most  important  of  the  recent  inven- 
tions for  saving  time,  labor,  and  fuel  is  the  fireless 
cooker  or  fireless  cook-stove.  Although  the  use  of  the 
"  fireless  "  has  increased  rapidly  during  the  last  ten 
years,  its  operation  is  still  a  mystery  to  most  people, 
and  the  salesperson  needs  to  be  well  informed  as  to  the 
principle  of  fireless  cooking  and  the  method  of  using 
the  cookers  successfully. 

She  must  also  be  able  to  forestall  objections  and 
complaints  resulting  from  ignorance  or  carelessness, 
and  be  a  real  adviser  to  the  customer  who  is  purchas- 
ing a  cooker  for  the  first  time. 

Principle  of  Fireless  Cooking 

The  principle  of  fireless  cooking  is  simply  the  con- 
servation of  heat  through  insulation.  Insulation  in  a 
refrigerator  shuts  the  heat  out;  in  a  fireless  cooker  it 
shuts  the  heat  in. 

The  articles  on  an  ordinary  stove  are  constantly 
losing  heat  from  the  surface  of  the  cooking  vessel  and 

171 


172        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

the  steam  which  rises  from  the  boihng  water;  while 
the  stove  itself  is  wasting  far  more  heat  than  it  sup- 
plies to  the  food.  In  the  fireless  cooker  this  waste  is 
done  away  with,  and  it  is  estimated  that  from  75  to 
80  per  cent  of  the  fuel  is  saved. 

Primitive  Fireless  Cookers 

Norwegian  peasants  for  generations  have  used  a 
"  hay  box  "  in  which  they  left  the  meal  to  be  cooked 
while  the  entire  family  were  out  in  the  fields  at  work. 
Later  the  German  peasants  would  slart  soup  cooking 
on  the  stove  and  then  cover  it  up  in  feather  beds,  leav- 
ing it  to  continue  cooking.  At  last  the  hay  box  found 
its  way  to  France  and  was  improved  and  exhibited  at 
the  Paris  Exposition  in  1867  as  a  new  method  of 
cooking. 

Clambakes  are  on  the  same  principle  as  fireless  cook- 
ing. The  clams  are  placed  between  hot  stones  and 
covered  with  seaweed. 

The  use  of  fireless  cookers  has  increased  greatly  in 
the  last  few  years  with  the  advent  of  many  other  im- 
provements in  kitchen  conveniences.  The  fact  that 
gas,  gasoline,  and  kerosene  have  so  widely  displaced 
wood  and  coal  has  increased  the  use  of  the  fireless, 
because,  when  a  fire  was  kept  in  the  stove  all  day  slow- 
cooking  dishes  could  be  prepared  without  considering 
the  amount  of  fuel  expended,  but  when  a  special  fire 
was  needed  it  made  cooking  more  expensive. 


FIRELESS  COOKERS 


173 


The  earlier  cookers  were  little  more  than  hay  boxes, 
but  so  many  improvements  have  been  made  that  in- 
sulation is  now  almost  perfect,  and  food  placed  in  the 
modern  fireless  cooker  in  the  raw  state  can  be  thor- 
oughly and  deliciously  cooked  with  no  other  heat  than 
that  supplied  by  its  soapstone  or  metal  radiators. 

Parts 

The  fireless  cooker  consists  of  a  wooden  or  metal 
box,  containing  one  or  more  air-tight  wells  for  the 
food,  and  a  quantity  of  insulating  material  to  prevent 
the  escape  of  heat.  Figure  8  is  a  cross  sectional  view 
of  a  fireless  cooker,  showing  the  construction  of  the 
case  and  the  insulation. 

Case 

The  outside  case  of  the  fireless  stove  may  oe  ot 
hard  wood  or  of  sheet  steel.  In  any  case  it  must  be 
well  made  and  tightly  joined  to  insure  good  insulation. 

The  interior  lining,  and  that  used  for  the  wells,  is 
ordinarily  of  aluminum  or  nickeled  copper.  Alumi- 
num is  most  often  used.  The  material  must  be  non- 
rusting  and  easily  cleansed,  as  it  is  constantly  exposed 
to  moisture  and  to  foods.  The  lining  for  the  wells 
must  be  so  made  as  to  prevent  any  leakage  of  moisture 
into  the  instalation. 

Insulation 

The  most  important  part  of  the  entire  cooker,  which 


=i 


id 


I  ■ ' 


174        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


is  the  insulation,  is  never  exposed  to  view.     The  mate- 
rials used  for  the  purpose  are: 

Mineral  wool 
Cork 
Asbestos 
Excelsior 

These  materials  are  all  very  poor  conductors  of 
heat. 

Mineral  zvool  is  made  by  allowing  a  jet  of  steam  to 
escape  through  a  stream  of  liquid  slag.  The  slag  is 
blown  into  fine  white  threads,  called  mineral  wool. 

Cork  is  the  bark  of  a  tropical  tree.  When  used  for 
insulation  it  is  granulated. 

Asbestos  is  an  incombustible  fibrous  mineral  mined 
in  various  parts  of  the  country. 

Excelsior  is  finely  shaved  wood. 

The  insulating  material  is  tightly  packed  in  between 
the  well  and  the  case  so  that  no  crevice  is  left  for  the 
escape  of  the  precious  heat.  In  well-made  cookers,  as 
has  been  said,  the  lining  is  seamless,  so  that  there  is 
no  danger  that  the  steam  will  penetrate  and  thus  de- 
stroy the  efficiency  of  the  insulation. 

Radiators 

The  radiators  are  disks  of  soapstone  or  iron  which 
are  heated  over  a  fire  and  placed  in  the  cooker  to 


O 
O 

m 

U 


C 
O 

■*-» 
u 

C/5 

I 
en 

o 
U 


00 
bO 


FIRELESS  COOKERS 


17? 


supply  a  part  or  all  of  the  heat  necessary  to  cook  the 
food.  The  soapstone  radiators  absorb  and  retain  the 
heat  better  than  the  metal  ones  (they  will  maintain 
an  oven  temperature  for  three  hours,  while  the  iron 
will  do  so  only  for  one  and  a  half  hours),  but  they  re- 
quire care  to  prevent  cracking  and  chipping. 

Cooking  Vessels 

Aluminum  vessels  for  fireless  cooking  are  most  sat- 
isfactory, because  aluminum  stores  up  a  great  deal  of 
heat.  They  should  be  "  drawn  "  smooth  and  seamless 
to  prevent  waste  of  heat  or  leakage.  In  the  less  ex- 
pensive cookers,  vessels  of  gray  enameled  ware  are 
sometimes  found. 

The  covers  must  be  fitted  tightly  and  have  clamps 
to  hold  them  down.  Some  covers  have  a  hook  for  sus- 
pending the  heated  radiators  when  these  are  used  in- 
side the  vessels ;  in  others  there  is  a  rack  for  this  pur- 
pose. 

The  vessels  may  be  obtained  in  sets,  two  or  three  of 
which  fit  into  a  well  so  that  various  kinds  of  food  may 
be  cooked  at  one  time. 

There  is  no  danger  from  explosions  of  steam  in 
fireless  cookers,  as  some  persons  perhaps  may  imagine, 
because  the  cookers  are  either  provided  with  valves  in 
the  outer  cover  to  let  off  excess  steam,  or  the  cover  is 
constructed  so  as  to  allow  enough  leeway  for  steam  to 
escape. 


176       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

Methods  of  Cooking 

There  are  three  methods  of  cooking  in  a  fireless 
cooker,  depending  upon  the  use  of  the  radiators. 

1.  The  simplest  method  is  to  heat  the  food  first, 
bringing  it  to  the  boiling  point,  letting  it  boil  a  short 
time  on  the  stove,  and  then  placing  it  in  the  cooker 
without  the  heated  radiators.  This  is  used  in  cooking 
cereals,  vegetables,  fruits,  and  meats  which  are  boiled. 

2.  The  food  is  placed  in  the  cooker  cold  and  raw 
with  the  heated  discs,  one  at  the  bottom  and  one  at  the 
top  of  the  cooking  utensil.  This  method  is  used  for 
baking  bread,  cake,  beans,  meats;  in  short,  for  all 
foods  which  are  to  be  roasted  or  baked. 

3.  The  third  method  is  a  combination  of  the  two 
preceding  ones.  The  food  is  heated  first  on  the  stove 
and  then  placed  in  the  cooker  with  one  or  two  heated 
discs,  according  to  the  judgment  of  the  cook.  This 
method  is  useful  for  all  kinds  of  food. 

For  boiling  or  steaming,  only  one  radiator  is  used 
at  the  bottom  of  the  well.  For  baking,  two  are  re- 
quired, one  below  and  one  above  the  food. 

Suggestions  for  Fireless  Cooking 

Good  cooking  in  the  fireless,  as  in  other  stoves,  re- 
quires knowledge,  patience,  experience,  and  good  judg- 
ment. Customers  should  be  reminded  that  they  must 
not  expect  to  put  poorly  concocted  dishes  into  the  fire- 
less and  take  out  perfect  specimens  of  cookery.     They 


FIRELESS  COOKERS 


177 


should  study  the  sample  recipes  prepared  by  manufac- 
turers of  cookers  and  note  special  requirements. 

Recipes  for  fireless  cooking  differ  from  ordinary 
recipes  chiefly  in  the  amount  of  water  used.  As  there 
is  no  chance  for  water  to  escape  or  evaporate,  less 
liquid  is  needed  than  on  the  stove. 

Small  quantities  of  food  should  be  cooked  in  small 
vessels,  not  in  large  ones. 

In  preparing  food  for  the  fireless,  the  preliminary 
heating  must  be  done  in  the  fireless  vessels,  not  trans- 
ferred to  them  from  another. 

Fireless  cooking  is  most  suitable  for  foods  requir- 
ing a  long,  slow  cooking  and  the  application  of  moist 
heat,  such  as  boiling  and  stewing  cereals,  soups,  meat, 
dried  fruits  and  vegetables,  steamed  bread,  puddings, 
etc.  It  preserves  the  flavor  of  meats  and  vegetables, 
as  no  odors  can  escape. 

Advantages 

Of  course,  the  chief  advantage  in  the  use  of  the  fire- 
less is  economy  of  fuel.  It  saves  approximately  three- 
fourths  of  the  gas  or  coal  used  in  cooking  in  a  range. 
In  a  short  time  this  saving  will  pay  for  the  cost  of  the 

cooker. 

It  is  also  economical  because  cheap  cuts  of  meat  can 
be  cooked  tender  by  its  long,  slow  process. 

The  point  of  convenience  is  always  a  telling  one  to 
make.     The  use  of  the  fireless  does  away  with  a  great 


178       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

deal  of  the  watchfulness  and  the  time  that  are  required 
for  superintending  oven  or  stove  cooking. 

It  also  helps  to  keep  the  house  cool  in  summer.  It 
can  even  be  used  for  preparing  frozen  desserts,  like 
mousse. 

The  length  of  time  for  cooking  depends  on  the  na- 
ture of  the  food,  and  upon  the  amount  of  heat  in  the 
discs  and  in  the  food  itself  when  placed  in  the  cooker. 
The  more  heat  there  is  in  the  material  when  it  is  put 
in,  the  quicker  will  be  the  cooking.  A  good  fireless 
cooker  will  retain  a  cooking  temperature  for  4  or  5 
hours,  and  the  food  will  not  become  cold  for  4  or  5 
hours  after  that.  It  takes  from  one-fourth  to  one- 
third  longer  time  in  the  fireless  than  in  a  regular  oven 
or  stove. 

Suggestions  as  to  Care 

The  fireless  needs  little  care  to  keep  it  in  good  order. 
The  wells  should  be  kept  odorless  by  airing  them  each 
time  after  cooking.  If  greasy  food  has  been  cooked, 
the  wells  should  be  washed  with  hot  water. 

If  the  wells  have  seamed  linings,  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  wipe  them  out  each  time  before  using  with  olive  oil, 
to  prevent  steam  from  penetrating  any  possible  crack. 

In  caring  for  the  vessels  the  same  rules  apply  as  for 
all  aluminum  utensils.     (See  Chapter  V.) 

The  soapstone  radiators  should  be  kept  dry  and 
warm,  as  they  readily  absorb  moisture,   which  will 


FIRELESS  COOKERS 


179 


form  steam  when  heated  and  cause  them  to  crack. 
In  heating  them  the  heat  should  be  only  moderate  at 
first,  until  the  discs  are  warmed  through,  and  then  in- 
tense heat  may  be  applied. 

Both  soapstone  and  metal  radiators  should  be  heated 
before  they  are  used  for  the  first  time.  The  soapstone 
should  be  baked  in  the  oven  to  dry  it  out  and  the  metal 
heated  over  a  slow  fire  to  remove  the  **  new  "  odor. 


Chapter  XVII 

KITCHEN  TABLES 

Working  Tables 

Kitchen  tables  are  plain,  and  simply  constructed. 
Some  are  fitted  with  one  shallow  drawer  for  a  few 
implements;  others  have  drawers,  draw  boards,  and 
bins.     The  latter  sort  are  called  pastry  tables. 

It  is  essential  that  a  kitchen  table  provide  a  broad 
working  surface  for  the  utensils  and  the  materials  used 
in  cooking.  Table  tops  vary  in  size;  some  of  the 
popular  sizes  are  28x32,  28x48,  27x53,  28x72 
inches. 

It  is  also  desirable  for  sanitary  reasons  that  the  top 
be  of  some  non-absorbent  material. 

Tops 

The  materials  of  which  the  tops  of  tables  and  cabi- 
nets are  composed  are : 

Wood  Glass 

Zinc  Marble 

Porcelain 

Wooden-topped  tables  are  of  poplar,  ash,  oak,  or 

180 


KITCHEN  TABLES 


181 


pine.  They  may  be  simply  sand-papered  or  varnished. 
They  should  be  covered  with  oil  cloth  for  protection. 

Zinc  is  a  good  and  inexpensive  covering  for  a 
wooden  top.  Bulging  of  the  zinc  may  be  prevented,  if 
the  wooden  table  top  is  paneled  to  avoid  warping,  and 
the  zinc  is  nailed  on  tightly. 

Porcelain  tops  are  fused  onto  sheet  steel,  and  are 
strong  and  durable.  The  frames  and  legs  may  be 
enameled. 

Glass  tops  are  easy  to  keep  clean  and  are  very  at- 
tractive, but  hot  dishes  are  apt  to  crack  them  and 
grinders  or  choppers  cannot  be  clamped  to  their  edges. 
Glass-topped    tables    have    either    metal    or    wooden 

frames. 

Marble-topped  tables  are  made  of  Italian  or  Ameri- 
can polished  marble.  They  are  unexcelled  for  pastry 
and  candy-making. 

If  there  are  bins  for  flour  and  cereals  they  should  be 
lined  with  zinc  or  tin  to  keep  out  mice  and  dust. 

Frames 

The  wooden  frames  for  tables,  whatever  the  tops 
may  be,  are  usually  of  hard  maple.  They  should  be 
carefully  tenoned  and  strongly  finished.  The  legs  may 
be  either  square  or  round. 

Height  of  Working  Surfaces 
A  very  important  consideration  in  any  table  or  work- 


l82        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

ing  surface  is  that  of  suiting  its  height  to  the  height 
of  the  worker,  who  should  be  able  to  stand  erect,  and 
at  the  same  time  be  able  to  work  with  the  weight  of 
the  body  over  the  table.  The  proper  height  of  the  sur- 
face is  about  eight  inches  below  the  worker's  waist  line. 
The  following  table  will  show  the  proportional  heights : 


Proper  Height 

of  Surface 

27     in. 

27V2 
28 

28K> 

2Q 
2954 

30 

3oy2 
31 

Z1Y2 
32 

32% 

33 

33V2 


Height  of  Woman 

4  ft. 

10 

in. 

4  " 

II 

u 

5  " 

5  " 

I 

it 

5  " 

2 

tl 

5  " 

3 

i* 

5  " 

4 

it 

5  '' 

5 

it 

5  " 

6 

it 

5  " 

7 

« 

5  " 

8 

(t 

5  " 

9 

t( 

5  " 

10 

it 

5  " 

II 

it 

a 

it 

(t 

it 

*i 

it 

it 

it 

a 

tt 

it 

it 

tt 


Care  of  Tables 

The  following  suggestions  for  the  care  of  table  tops 
will  be  appreciated  by  the  customer : 

Wooden  tops  should  be  wiped  with  a  wet  cloth, 
using  no  more  water  than  is  necessary.  They  may  be 
scoured  with  scouring  powders,  but  always  with  the 
grain  of  the  wood.  They  should  be  wiped  as  dry  as 
possible  afterwards.     Dirt  should  not  be  allowed  to 


KITCHEN  TABLES 


183 


collect  in  cracks.  Grease  spots  can  be  removed  by  cov- 
ering them  with  borax  or  ammonia,  allowing  this  to 
stand  for  a  short  time,  and  then  scrubbing  with  sand 
soap. 

Zinc  mav  be  cleaned  with  a  little  kerosene  rubbed  on 
by  a  flannel  cloth,  or  with  a  fine-grained  sand  soap. 

Glass  or  enameled  tops  need  only  wiping  with  a  wet 
cloth  to  remove  dirt. 


Chapter  XVIII 

BASKETS 

Varieties 

The  heavier,  more  substantial  styles  of  baskets  are 
carried  in  the  House  furnishings  Department.  They 
are: 


Laundry  baskets 
Hampers 
Market  baskets 


Scrap  baskets 
Fireside  baskets 
Lunch  baskets 


The  fancy  and  art  baskets  are  described  in  the  man- 
ual for  the  "  Art  Goods  Department/* 

According  to  the  materials  of  which  they  are  made, 
baskets  may  be  classified  as : 

Splint  Bamboo 

Willow  Vulcanized  fiber 

Reed  or  rattan 

Laundry,  clothes,  or  wash  baskets  for  use  in  the 
laundry  may  be  round,  oval,  or  oblong  in  shape  and  of 
varying  sizes.  They  are  seldom  over  14  inches  in 
depth.     The  sizes  are  designated  by  numbers,  as  No.  i, 

2,  3.  4»  etc.     They  are  made  of  splint,  rattan,  and  wil- 
low. 

184 


BASKETS 


185 


Hampers,  which  are  used  for  holding  soiled  cloth- 
ing, and  which  usually  stand  in  the  bathroom,  are  deep, 
covered  baskets  of  varying  proportions  to  fit  different 

spaces. 

They  are  made  in  the  following  shapes : 

Square  Oval , 

Oblong  Three-cornered 

Round  Half-round 

The  lids  of  most  hampers  are  woven  solid,  but  in 
some  there  are  openings  through  which  the  clothes  may 
be  thrust.  The  bottom  is  usually  of  a  solid  piece  of 
wood,  which  gives  a  firm,  unresisting  base.  They  are 
made  of  splints,  rattan,  and  willow. 

Market  baskets,  so  called  because  they  are  used  for 
carrying  provisions,  are  made  in  various  shapes,  both 
with  and  without  covers  and  with  either  a  stiff  over 
handle  or  drop  handle.  Most  of  them  are  made  of 
willow,  or  combinations  of  willow  and  straw  braids. 
They  are  also  made  of  splints,  and  sometimes  of  splints 
and  straw  braids  combined. 

Waste  baskets  are  cylindrical,  round,  or  square  bas- 
kets, made  of  all  the  materials  used  for  other  baskets 
and  also  sometimes  of  wire  and  vulcanized  fiber. 

Lunch  baskets  are  smaller  than  market  baskets,  of 
varying  sizes,  with  either  straight  or  hinged  covers,  and 
two  drop  handles.  They  are  made  of  splints,  reed, 
and  bamboo. 


^ 


.n 


i\\ 


ill 
*  1] 


1 86       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

Materials 

Wicker  is  the  general  term  given  to  the  materials 
of  which  baskets  are  made.  The  necessary  character- 
istic of  any  material  to  be  used  in  weaving  is  pli- 
ability. 

Splints  are  strips  of  hard  wood,  ash,  maple,  elm, 
birch  or  oak,  cut  so  thin  that  when  wet  they  may 
be  woven.  Baskets  may  be  made  entirely  of  splints, 
or  with  splint  uprights  and  bamboo  or  reed  filling. 

Rattan  or  reeds  are  strips  of  a  kind  of  palm  which 
grows  in  India  twined  about  trees  and  hanging  from 
branches.  Sometimes  the  plant  grows  to  a  thousand 
feet  in  length.  It  is  stripped  of  leaves  and  bark,  split 
into  round  or  flat  strips  of  various  sizes,  and  imported 
in  this  form. 

Willow,  or  osier,  grows  in  wet,  marshy  soils.  Clay 
soils  are  unsuitable  for  its  cultivation.  It  is  very 
widely  grown  in  Holland,  Belgium,  and  France,  where 
the  tide  floods  the  river  basins.  Large  quantities  are 
normally  imported  from  these  countries,  and  before 
the  war  also  from  Germany  and  Austria.  In  Amer- 
ica plantations  of  willow  are  located  in  the  vicinity  of 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  Detroit,  Milwaukee,  Cincinnati,  and 
Baltimore.  Japan  has  recently  become  a  large  pro- 
ducer of  willow. 

When  the  willow  is  to  be  used  for  basketry,  it  is 
not  allowed  to  grow  to  tree  size,  as  the  branches  must 
be  long,  slender,  and  supple,  yet  tough.     For  this  rea- 


BASKETS 


187 


I 


son  the  willows  are  planted  close  together  so  that  they 
will  not  branch  out  more  than  is  desirable. 

The  shoots  used  for  basketry  are  cut  once  a  year, 
during  the  season  when  the  plant  is  not  growing. 

The  shoots  are  sorted  into  two  groups  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  baskets  into  which  they  are  to  be 
made,  the  brown  and  the  white.  If  for  brown,  the 
shoots  are  simply  dried  and  stacked  ready  for  use. 
If  for  white,  they  must  be  more  carefully  treated. 
They  are  tied  in  bundles,  and  stood  upright  in  wide 
open  trenches  containing  about  four  inches  of  water. 
In  the  springtime  the  shoots  begin  to  bud  and  blossom. 
The  bark  is  then  peeled  from  them  by  pulling  the 
willow  shoots  between  two  iron  edges  which  strip 
away  the  bark.  They  are  dried  in  the  sun  and  sorted 
by  size. 

Bamboo  is  a  plant  that  grows  in  India,  China,  and 
Japan.  The  stems  are  used  for  basketry  and  also  for 
many  other  purposes. 

Basket-Making 

The  process  of  making  baskets  is  really  very  sim- 
ple, merely  one  of  in-and-out  weaving,  but  great  skill 
is  required  to  make  a  basket  well.  They  must  be 
woven  by  hand.  During  the  process  the  materials  are 
kept  wet  to  make  them  pliable. 

The  bottom  is  made  first.  In  a  willow  basket,  for 
instance,  the  heavier,  stronger  willows  are  used  for 


!■    . 


I 


•  M 


l88       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

this  part.  Then  the  bottom  is  fixed  to  a  number  of 
upright  willows,  called  spokes ;  and  thinner  ones,  called 
weavers,  are  plaited  in  and  out  around  the  spokes. 
The  simplest  form  of  basketry  is  the  "  under  and 
over  '*  weaving,  with  one  weaver  and  an  odd  number 
of  spokes.  There  are  many  fancy  weaves,  but  few  of 
these  are  used  in  the  baskets  sold  in  the  Housefurnish- 
ings  Department. 

When  the  sides  are  built  high  enough  the  upright 
spokes  are  bent  down  into  the  basket  and  a  border 
worked  around  the  top  to  give  greater  strength. 

In  the  so-called  bamboo-filled  baskets  the  bottom 
and  uprights  are  splints,  and  the  filler  split  rattan, 
called  bamboo.  In  this  type  the  top  is  finished  with  a 
strip  of  hard  wood  which  is  nailed  to  each  upright. 

Metal  strips  or  bands,  or  extra  strips  of  wood  are 
often  used  to  reinforce  the  baskets.  These  run  from 
rim  to  rim  across  the  bottom  of  the  basket. 

In  laundry  baskets  it  is  essential  that  any  iron,  such 
as  nails  or  reinforcing  strips,  be  galvanized  or  tinned 
to  prevent  the  wet  clothes  from  being  rusted.  It  is 
also  essential  that  these  baskets  be  neatly  finished  with 
^o  jagged  or  rough  places  to  tear  the  clothes. 

Making  Vulcanized  Fiber  Baskets 

Vulcanized  fiber  is  the  same  material  as  that  used 
for  covering  trunks.  Paper,  made  of  cotton  rags,  is 
the  base.     This  paper  passes  through  a  solution  of 


BASKETS 


189 


zinc  chlorid,  which  partly  dissolves  the  cellulose  in 
the  paper.  (For  information  upon  the  manufacture 
of  paper  and  upon  cellulose,  see  the  manual  for  the 
"  Stationery  Department.") 

The  paper  is  wound  on  large  cylinders,  the  number 
of  layers  depending  on  the  thickness  desired.  For 
waste  baskets  a  comparatively  thin  weight  is  used. 
The  coating  of  paper  is  then  slit  and  removed  from 
the  cylinders  in  the  form  of  large  fiat  sheets. 

The  sheets  are  next  placed  in  large  vats  and  the 
excess  of  zinc  chlorid  removed.  If  it  were  allowed 
to  remain  it  would  destroy  the  cellulose. 

The  paper  is  then  dried.  It  is  one-half  as  thick 
after  drying  as  before. 

Finally  the  sides  of  the  baskets  are  stamped  out 
under  hydraulic  pressure  and  riveted  together,  the 
bottoms  riveted  in,  and  the  tops  rolled  by  hand. 

These  baskets  are  brown  or  green  in  color. 

History 

The  willow  basket  is  of  very  ancient  origin.  Early 
Greek  records  mention  it.  The  Bible  tells  of  the 
infant  Moses  being  placed  in  a  basket.  In  Ancient 
Britain  the  soldiers  wore  shields  made  of  basketwork. 

The  process  of  making  baskets  today  does  not  dif- 
fer materially  from  that  of  bygone  centuries. 


If  I 

■  II 


I 


■  n 


Part  IV  -The  Selling  of  House- 

furnishings 


Chapter  XIX 

THE  SELECTION  OF  AN  EQUIPMENT 

Considerations 

A  great  many  things  must  be  considered  when  the 
salesperson  is  assisting  the  customer  to  select  her  tools 
for  kitchen  and  laundry  work. 

Utensils  must  be  suitable  for  the  customer's  needs 
as  well  as  to  the  work  to  be  performed.  The  things 
that  determine  their  suitability  are : 

Customer's  manner  of  living 
Size  of  the  customer's  family 
Construction  of  the  articles 

Customer's  Manner  of  Living 

What  is  essential  to  some  families  is  not  necessary 

or  possible  for  others.     What  a  customer  can  afford 

to  spend  for  her  equipment  affects  both  the  number 

and  kind  of  articles  she  will  purchase. 

igo 


SELECTION  OF  AN  EQUIPMENT 


191 


Salespeople  have  many  opportunities  for  stating  the 
truth  that  the  cheapest  ware  is  often  far  from  cheap  in 
the  end.  "  Seconds  "  may  be  satisfactory  for  some 
purposes,  but  for  the  hard  and  constant  wear  which 
most  utensils,  especially  those  for  cooking,  receive,  the 
best  is  none  too  good. 

Where  the  difference  iri  price  is  merely  a  matter  of 
greater  elaborateness  or  decoration,  the  salesperson 
will  be  doing  the  customer  and  store  a  service  to  recom- 
mend the  simpler  article  and  thus  perhaps  enable  the 
customer  to  purchase  more  utensils.  This  consider- 
ation will  surely  make  a  friend  of  the  customer. 

Where  servants  are  employed,  many  housekeepers 
will  not  purchase  expensive  equipment  because  of  the 
likelihood  of  its  being  ruined  by  ignorant  and  careless 
usage.  It  is  the  customer  who  "  does  her  own  work  " 
who  not  only  needs,  but  buys,  the  more  expensive 
labor-saving  equipment.  It  is  therefore  a  good  prin- 
ciple to  keep  in  mind  that  a  woman  who  does  her  own 
work  will  be  more  interested  in  a  bread  mixer,  a 
vacuum  cleaner,  or  a  crankless  ice-cream  freezer,  than 
the  one  with  a  servant. 

If  a  house  is  wired  for  electricity,  a  customer  is 
quite  likely  to  possess  or  to  desire  an  electric  perco- 
lator, toaster,  grill,  chafing  dish,  and  flat-iron.  At  the 
present  time,  electric  stoves  are  too  expensive  for  ordi- 
nary purses,  and  this  form  of  fuel  does  not  generally 
affect  the  entire  equipment. 


1 . 


m 


:|i 


n 


192        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

What  is  indispensable  to  some  families  may  not  be 
needed  at  all  by  others.  For  instance,  a  family  living 
in  a  small  town  often  cannot  secure  good  baker's  food, 
and  therefore  bread  or  cake  mixers  are  a  welcome  part 
of  the  equipment;  while  a  city  dweller  would  have  less 
use  for  them. 

In  other  cases  the  housekeeper  may  be  a  person  who 
is  away  from  home  a  great  deal  of  the  time  on  business 
or  social  duties,  and  the  preparation  of  a  meal  in- 
volves the  shorter  cooking  operations,  such  as  broiling, 
rather  than  the  longer  baking  and  roasting  processes. 

Size  of  Family 

The  size  of  the  family  affects  the  size  rather  than 
the  number  of  articles  needed.  The  same  variety  of 
utensils  is  needed  to  serve  a  meal  whether  it  be  for  two 
or  for  six,  but  the  utensils  for  a  small  family  need 
not  be  so  large. 

The  Bride's  Outfit 

The  bride  is  one  of  the  few  customers  who  are  likely 
to  buy  a  complete  equipment  at  one  time.  The  sales- 
person therefore  always  welcomes  such  a  customer. 
Care  should  be  taken,  however,  not  to  overstock  the 
bride.  She  will  appreciate  the  courtesy  of  the  sales- 
woman's advice  as  to  the  wisdom  of  getting  essential 
articles  first,  and  having  them  of  the  best  quality. 

The  extent  of  the  equipment  which  she  needs  de- 


SELECTION  OF  AN  EQUIPMENT  193 

pends  upon  the  scale  of  housekeeping  which  she  un- 
dertakes. If  she  expects  to  entertain  a  great  deal  she 
will  need  the  same  sizes  and  quantities  of  utensils  that 
the  larger  family  requires.  If  she  expects  to  live 
simply  and  quietly  and  do  her  own  work,  the  equip- 
ment may  be  simpler  and  the  utensils  small. 

Standard  Equipment 

The  saleswoman  should  know  what  articles  are  ab- 
solutely essential  in  any  equipment,  and  w^hat  are  not 
indispensable  but  merely  desirable.  With  this  thought 
in  mind,  the  following  list  is  given : 

A  —  Articles  for  Cooking 

I.  For  Boiling,  Braising,  Roasting,  Baking 

(a)  Indispensables 

Roasting  Pan 

Baking  Dish 

Bread  Pans 

Pie  Plates 

Muffin  Pans 

Layer  Cake  Pans 

Toaster  or  Wire  Broiler 

(b)  Desirables 

Casserole 

Double  Roaster 

Bean  Pot 

Ramekins 

Custard  Cups 

Loose  Bottom  Cake  Pans 

Broiler 


1 


i 


III 


194       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

2.  For  Boiling,  Stewing,  Steaming 

(a)  Indispensables 

Teakettle 

Stew-  and  Saucepans 

Teapot 

Coffee-pot 

Double  Boiler 

Preserving  Kettle 

(b)  Desirables 

Steamer 
Poacher 

3.  For  Frying,  Sauteing 

(a)  Indispensables 

Frying  Pans  ( i  large  and  i  small) 
Frying  Kettle 
Frying  Basket 

(b)  Desirables 

Waffle  Molds 
Omelet  Pan 
Griddle 
Cake  Turner 

4.  Miscellaneous  Small  Equipment  for  Stove 

Salt  Box 

Pepper  Dredge 

Flour  Dredge 

Pot  Covers 

Match  Box 

Stove  Cloths  and  Holders 

B  —  Articles  for  Preparing  and  Mixing  Foods 
I.  For  Chopping,  Cutting,  Grinding 
(a)  Indispensables 
Small  Knife 
Bread  Knife 
Graters 


SELECTION  OF  AN  EQUIPMENT 


195 


Biscuit  Cutter 

Can  Opener 

Food  Chopper  or  Chopping  Bowl  and 

Knife 
Cork  Screw 

(b)  Desirables 

Coffee  Mill 

Apple  Corer 

Small  Cleaver 

Slicer 

Knife  Sharpener 

Grapefruit  Knife 

Palette  Knife 

2.  For  Stirring,  Beating,  Pressing,  Rolling 

(a)  Indispensables 

Egg  Beater 

Lemon  Squeezer 

Potato  Masher 

Mixing  Bowls  (large  and  small) 

Mixing  Spoons  (i  slitted  beating) 

Bread  Board 

Rolling  Pin 

(b)  Desirables 

Butter  Paddles 
Bread  Mixer 
Cream  Whipper 
Mayonnaise  Beater 

3.  For  Straining  and  Separating 

(a)  Indispensables 
Colander 
Soup  Strainer 
Tea  Strainer 
Funnel 
Flour  Sifter 


f        V 


I 


I 


'  I- 


196       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

(b)  Desirables 

Egg  Separator 

4.  For  Measuring 

(a)  Indispensables 

Measuring  Cups 
Measuring  Spoons 

(b)  Desirables 

Scales 

5.  For  Containing  Foods 

(a)  Indispensables 

Receptacles  for 

Flour 

Bread 

Cake 

Sugar 

Spices 
Tea 
Coffee 
Butter 
Assorted  sizes  of 
Bowls 
Dishes 
Platters 
Plates 
Pitchers 
Trays 

(b)  Desirables 

Pint  Jars 
Quart  Jars 
C  — Laundry  Equipment 

I.  Indispensables 
Ironing  Board 
Washboard 
Clothes  Basket 


SELECTION  OF  AN  EQUIPMENT  197 

12  doz.  Clothes-pins 

Boiler 

Clothes  Line 

3  Flat  Irons 

Wringer 

2.  Desirables 

Fluting  Iron 
Sleeve  Board 
Clothes  Horse 
Curtain  Stretcher 
Hamper 
Clothes  Lifter 

D  —  Articles  for  Cleaning 

1.  Indispensables 

Long-handled    Hair   Brush    for   Uncovered 

Floors 
Long-handled  Dry  Floor  Polishing  Mop  for 

Painted  or  Polished  Floors 
Wet  Mop  for  Washing  Floors 
Ordinary  Broom  for  Ordinary  Floors 
Carpet-Sweeper 
Small  Brush  for  Corners 
Dust-pan 

Large  and  Small  Scrubbing  Brushes 
Scrub  Pail 
Dusters 

2.  Desirables 

See  list  of  brushes  in  Chapter  XI 

*E  —  Articles  for  the  Sink 
I.  Indispensables 
Dishpan 

Rinsing  and  Draining  Pans 
Soap  Dish 
Dish  Mop  or  Cloth 


f; 


u 


I 


1) 


198       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

Pot  Cleaner 
Sink  Brush 
Sink  Strainer 
2.  Desirables 

Hand  Basin 
Plate  Scraper 
Soap  Shaker 

The  Lightest  of  All  Outfits 

Those  who  prepare  their  breakfasts  in  their  rooms, 
or  who  wish  to  have  "  chafing  dish  "  suppers,  need 
only  a  very  few  articles.  If  a  chafing  dish  is  not  de- 
sired the  person  will  require  a  small  stewpan,  a  frying 
pan,  a  tray,  a  large  mixing  spoon,  and  perhaps  an  alco- 
hol stove.  With  a  chafing  dish  a  customer  will  need 
also  an  egg  beater,  a  can  opener,  and  a  corkscrew. 

Fuel-Saving  Equipment 

Many  plans  have  been  devised  to  lessen  the  cost  of 
fuel,  such  as  constructing  one  utensil  so  that  it  will  do 
the  work  of  two,  or  improvements  which  decrease  the 
time  needed  for  cooking. 

Fireless  cookers  are  the  first  articles  thought  of  in 
this  connection,  and  a  combined  teakettle  and  double 
boiler  is  now  quite  common. 

Flat  plates  of  iron,  which  can  be  placed  over  the 
burner  of  a  gas  range,  make  it  possible  to  use  one 
burner  for  heating  several  flat-irons.  By  using  a  chop 
or  steak  cover  these  plates  may  be  converted  into 
miniature  ovens,  excellent  for  baking  potatoes,  etc. 


SELECTION  OF  AN  EQUIPMENT  199 

Double  or  triplicate  saucepans  are  very  useful  in 
saving  fuel.  More  than  one  food  at  a  time  can  be 
cooked  in  a  steamer. 

Time-Saving  and  Labor-Saving  Equipment 

In  no  place  is  the  statement  that  time  is  worth  money 
truer  than  in  the  kitchen,  especially  when  a  woman  has 
many  other  interests  and  duties  demanding  attention. 
Of  late  years,  since  women  have  been  extending  their 
interests  and  devoting  less  time  to  the  actual  labor  of 
the  household,  many  utensils  have  been  devised  for 
saving  time  and  labor.     Among  these  are : 

Food  choppers  Mayonnaise  mixers 

Bread  and  cake  mixers       Apple  parers 

Ice-cream  freezers  which 
do  not  require  turning 

Dish  washers 

Washing  machines 

Silver-cleaning  pans 

Many  of  these  devices  save  food,  as  well  as  time  and 
labor.  For  instance,  a  coffee  percolator  saves  eggs; 
aluminum  pans  save  grease ;  egg  poachers  save  eggs. 

Construction 

When  the  salesperson  has  considered  the  customer's 
manner  of  living  and  the  size  of  the  family  in  relation 
to  the  articles  of  kitchenware  which  will  be  needed, 


Bread  slicers 
Mangles 

Long-handled  dust- 
pans 
Dustless  mops 


i 

4 


200        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

she  should  next  consider  what  features  in  the  construc- 
tion of  each  article  will  best  suit  the  customer's  re- 
quirements. 

It  is  not  enough  to  study  the  individual  pieces  in 
the  stock,  as  has  been  done  in  Chapters  IX  to  XVIII. 
She  should  also  compare  their  points  of  construction. 

Some  of  the  important  features  are : 

Handles  Ease  of  cleaning 

Covers  Size  and  shape 

Lips 

Handles  ^ 

The  style  of  handle  on  a  utensil  determines  whether 
or  not  it  will  be  convenient  for  the  prospective  cus- 
tomer to  use.  "  A  heavy  utensil,  well  balanced,  with 
handle  or  bail  set  in  just  the  right  place  and  way,  may 
be  easier  to  use  than  a  lighter  one  in  which  these  points 
were  not  considered  and  which  must  be  kept  balanced 
by  hand  and  wrist  in  order  not  to  tip.  .  .  . 

"  The  choice  depends  on  the  use  to  which  the  uten- 
sil is  to  be  put,  on  its  size,  and  on  the  available  stove 
and  storage  space.  For  a  utensil  of  moderate  size, 
easily  lifted  with  one  hand,  occupying  little  space  in 
itself,  and  intended  for  use  on  top  of  the  stove  only,  a 

1  Quoted  matter  in  this  chapter  is  taken  from  Farm  House  Series  No.  5 
of  the  Cornell  Readitig-Courses, — "  Choice  and  Care  of  Utensils,"  by  Ida 
S.  Harrington. 


Wi 

■»-> 

3 
u 

u 

60      cn 

<    rs 

o      § 
bo    lD 


o 
U 

V 

-4-* 


o 


°       C 


ffi 


cn 

*>» 
■*•* 

C/3 
en 

O 
u 

> 

& 

u 
bo 


ly 


i 

A 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


200        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

she  should  next  consider  what  features  in  the  construc- 
tion of  each  article  will  best  suit  the  customer's  re- 
quirements. 

It  is  not  enough  to  study  the  individual  pieces  in 
the  stock,  as  has  been  done  in  Chapters  IX  to  XVIII. 
She  should  also  compare  their  points  of  construction. 

Some  of  the  important  features  are : 

Handles  Ease  of  cleaning 

Covers  Size  and  shape 

Lips 

Handles  * 

The  style  of  handle  on  a  utensil  determines  whether 
or  not  it  will  be  convenient  for  the  prospective  cus- 
tomer to  use.  "  A  heavy  utensil,  well  balanced,  with 
handle  or  bail  set  in  just  the  right  place  and  way,  may 
be  easier  to  use  than  a  lighter  one  in  which  these  points 
were  not  considered  and  which  must  be  kept  balanced 
by  hand  and  wrist  in  order  not  to  tip.  .  .  . 

"  The  choice  depends  on  the  use  to  which  the  uten- 
sil is  to  be  put,  on  its  size,  and  on  the  available  stove 
and  storage  space.  For  a  utensil  of  moderate  size, 
easily  lifted  with  one  hand,  occupying  little  space  in 
itself,  and  intended  for  use  on  top  of  the  stove  only,  a 

1  Quoted  matter  in  this  chapter  is  taken  from  Farm  ITouse  Series  No.  5 
of  the  Cornell  ReadingCourses,—"  Choice  and  Care  of  Utensils,"  by  Ida 
S.  Harrington. 


u 

u 

< 


bo 
<u 


in 

V 

4-* 

u 
O 

U 


C 


Cg         •w^ 


en 
P 


(A 

c 


a> 

to 
O 

> 


0\ 

v 

u 

bo 


iff  I 

I'm 
M 


N 


SELECTION  OF  AN  EQUIPMENT 


20I 


fairly  long  handle  is  best;  it  does  not  get  in  the  way 
of  the  cover  or  of  the  contents  to  be  poured  out ;  more- 
over, it  may  be  so  constructed  as  not  to  grow  uncom- 
fortably hot  to  the  hand,  either  by  being  made  hollow, 
or  by  being  covered  with  wood  as  in  the  case  of  chafing 
dishes,  coffee  percolators,  and  the  like. 

"The  wooden  handle  is  better  adapted,  however, 
for  use  on  oil,  gas,  or  alcohol  stoves  than  on  coal  or 
wood  stoves,  since  with  the  former  the  area  of  heat 
does  not  reach  the  wood  sufficiently  to  crack  it.  Birch 
is  the  most  durable  wood  for  the  purpose,  but  the  at- 
tractiveness of  ebony  or  teak  wood  handles  generally 
leads  to  the  choice  of  some  wood  that  can  be  given  the 
ebony  finish. 

"  It  is  convenient,  at  times,  to  have  a  utensil  that 
may  be  transferred  at  will  from  the  top  of  the  stove  to 
the  oven,  l^or  this  purpose  utensils  are  made  with  a 
very  short  handle  or  with  two  handles  of  the  sugar 
bowl  type. 

"  The  half-circle  metal  bail,  reaching,  basket  fash- 
ion, from  one  side  of  the  utensil  to  the  other,  is  best 
reserved  for  utensils  so  large  in  themselves  as  to  re- 
quire much  stove  and  storage  space  and  needing  two 
hands  to  lift  them.  In  this  type  of  bail  the  wooden 
protector,  hanging  against  the  side  of  the  kettle  and 
very  close  to  the  fire,  soon  becomes  cracked,  breaks  off, 
and  makes  necessary  the  use  of  holders ;  moreover,  the 


i 


-  i 

■  i 

; 

I 


# 


202       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

bail  is  likely  to  get  in  the  way  when  the  cover  of  the 
utensil  is  being  adjusted  or  when  the  contents  are  being 
poured  out. 

"  The  choice  of  handles  that  do  not  grow  uncom- 
fortably hot  is  to  be  considered  even  in  the  matter  of 
measuring  cups.  Tests  with  tin,  aluminum,  and  glass 
measuring  cups  prove  the  glass  to  be  as  much  more 
comfortable  to  handle  as  it  is  easier  to  clean  than  the 
other  materials.  Aluminum  conducts  heat  too  readily 
to  make  practical  any  utensil  having  a  handle  of  the 
same  material.'* 

See  Figure  9  for  illustrations  of  these  different 
styles  of  handles. 

Covers 

Covers  may  fit  tightly  or  loosely.  "  For  long,  slow 
cooking,  when  the  purpose  is  to  conserve  heat,  mois- 
ture, and  flavor,  a  tight-fitting  cover  is  necessary.  For 
rapid  boiling,  when  much  steam  is  being  produced,  an 
easily  removed  cover  is  an  essential  safeguard." 

Lips 

"  Lips  of  utensils  should  be  on  the  side  that  is  con- 
venient, according  as  we  are  right-handed  or  left- 
handed.  .  .  . 

"  Most  utensils  are  designed  to  be  held  in  the  right 
hand  while  pouring  one  liquid  into  another.  This 
necessitates  either  stirring  with  the  left  hand  —  a  diffi- 


SELECTION  OF  AN  EQUIPMENT  203 

cult  operation  for  those  who  have  been  trained  to  the 
use  of  the  right  hand  all  their  lives  —  or  alternately 
pouring  and  stirring  with  the  right  hand,  with  the 
chance,  whenever  the  saucepan  is  set  down,  of  spilhng 
a  drop  that  will  require  wiping  up  later. 

"  A  saucepan  designed  to  be  held  in  the  left  hand, 
leaving  the  right  free  for  stirring  would,  in  the  lan- 
guage of  scientific  management,  '  rid  us  of  poor  tools, 
awkward  methods,  and  unnecessary  motions.'  " 

Ease  of  Cleaning 

"  In  order  to  insure  ease  of  cleaning,  a  utensil  should 
be  made  of  one  piece  of  metal  with  rounded  sides,  not 
with  seams  and  corners.     It  should  not  have  a  rolled 
rim  with  a  rough  edge  underneath.     The  joinmg  of 
utensil  and  handle  should  not  offer  grooves  or  tunnels 
as  gathering  places  for  particles  of  grease,  dust,  and 
soap.     It  is  important  that  the  inside  rather  than  the 
outside  of  the  utensil  be  smooth,  polished,  and  conse- 
quently easy  to  clean.    The  opening  should  be  wide 
enough  to  permit  easy  access  to  every  part  of  the 
utensil     The  modern  teakettles,  made  of  smooth,  non- 
absorbent  material,  with  an  opening  large  enough  to 
admit  the  whole  hand,  are  sanitary  and  time-savmg 
examples  of  this.     They  offer  no  excuse  for  leaving 
the  teakettle  unemptied  and  undried,  with  beads  of 
slowly  condensing  steam  roughening  and  rusting  it. 
"  Given  a  well-made  utensil,  much  of  the  ease  of 


i\ 


iki 


204        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

cleaning  depends  on  the  preparatory  care  that  is  given 
it  before  beginning  to  use  it  and  on  the  care  taken  of  it 
after  it  is  in  use." 

Suggestions  for  the  care  of  the  various  materials  of 
which  utensils  are  made  are  given  in  Part  I. 

Size  and  Shape 

Utensils  should  be  of  the  proper  size  and  shape  for 
the  amount  and  kind  of  cooking  to  be  done. 

**  The  pan  that  makes  an  ideal  omelet  for  three 
persons  would  produce  a  very  unevenly  cooked  dish 
if  used  for  an  omelet  for  six.  The  breakfast  cereal 
for  a  small  family,  if  put  into  a  large  kettle  in  the  fire- 
less  cooker,  would  soon  lose  its  small  stock  of  heat 
and  remain  raw.  .  .  . 

**  If  a  gas  or  an  oil  stove  is  used,  the  size  of  the  bot- 
tom of  the  utensil  greatly  affects  economy  of  fuel, 
time  of  cooking,  and  quality  of  the  finished  product. 
If  the  flame  spreads  beyond  the  edge  of  the  utensil, 
heat  is  wasted.  If  the  flame  strikes  only  one  point, 
there  is  danger  of  scorching  food  and  utensil  at  that 
point ;  this  leaves  part  of  the  product  underdone  unless 
constantly  stirred  into  the  area  of  heat.  If  utensils 
fail  to  fit  the  burner,  a  thin  stove  lid  of  the  proper 
size  may  be  placed  over  the  flame. 

"  The  time  needed  for  evaporation,  or  boiling  down, 
depends  on  the  amount  of  surface  exposed;  hence, 
evaporation  will  go  on  more  rapidly  in  a  utensil  that 


SELECTION  OF  AN  EQUIPMENT  205 

flares  at  the  top  than  in  one  the  top  and  bottom  of 
which  are  of  the  same  size.  The  contents  of  a  utensil 
made  of  material  that  is  a  good  conductor  of  heat,  such 
as  aluminum,  will  boil  down  more  rapidly  than  if  put 
into  an  enameled  ware  utensil  of  the  same  size." 


I 


Chapter  XX 

HISTORY  OF  COOKING  UTENSILS 

Primitive  Cookery 

One  of  man's  earliest  discoveries  was  how  to  obtain 
fire  by  striking  a  spark  with  flint.  As  soon  as  he 
learned  this,  he  immediately  applied  the  knowledge  to 
the  preparation  of  his  food.  Utensils  for  cooking  the 
food  were,  of  course,  his  next  need,  and  thus  he  soon 
found  a  way  of  holding  meat  on  a  stick  before  a  fire. 
This  crude  method  was  the  forerunner  of  the  broiler. 

Since  primitive  men  subsisted  largely  on  meat,  fish, 
fruits,  nuts,  and  berries,  the  process  of  roasting  was 
the  next  step  to  broiling  in  the  science  of  cookery. 
Man  early  discovered  that  the  meat  and  fish  would 
be  more  thoroughly  cooked  if  they  were  heated  slowly 
in  the  glowing  ashes  instead  of  being  held  over  the 
hot  flames. 

The  people  who  lived  in  the  valleys  of  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Nile,  where  flocks,  herds,  and  wild  animals 
were  scarce  and  where  grain  grew  wild  in  great  abun- 
dance, early  learned  the  food  values  of  wheat,  barley, 
and  rye.  After  grinding  the  grain  coarsely  between 
two  stones,  they  parched  it  by  roasting  it  among  the 

ashes.     When  some  bold  spirit  mixed  a  little  of  the 

206 


HISTORY  OF  COOKING  UTENSILS         207 

coarse  meal  with  water  and  patted  it  into  a  rough 
cake,  the  first  biscuit  was  baked  in  the  ashes. 

Before  he  learned  how  to  mold  vessels  from  metals 
or  hew  them  from  wood,  he  devised  the  method  of 
using  the  hides  of  animals  for  bags,  which  he  filled 
with  water,  into  which  he  dropped  hot  stones,  which 
caused  the  water  to  boil,  and  thus  cooked  the  meat  or 
the  other  food.  In  a  similar  way  the  American  In- 
dian braided  baskets  of  grass  and  willow,  filled  them 
with  water,  and  brought  the  water  to  a  boiling  point 
with  hot  stones.  These  simple  vessels  were  the  fore- 
runners of  our  pots  and  kettles. 

In  cold  or  rainy  weather  he  learned  to  make  a  hot 
stone  pit  in  which  food  could  be  covered  while  cooking. 
This  pit  was  the  predecessor  of  all  ovens. 

In  Mexico  and  some  Oriental  countries  cooking  is 
done  on  hot  stones  and  in  baskets  even  to  this  day. 

Early  Records 

Our  knowledge  of  these  facts  is  derived  from  actual 
pictures  showing  the  cooking  operations  of  bygone 
ages.  The  earliest  known  pictures  of  baking  are 
found  on  the  rock  tombs  of  Egypt.  Figure  10,  which 
dates  back  to  about  3,000  b.  c,  shows  two  men  baking 
unleavened  cakes  in  the  ashes.  One  has  been  knead- 
ing the  dough  in  what  is  probably  a  round  stone  dish. 
The  other  has  a  cake  in  one  hand  and  a  cake  turner  in 
the  other. 


,/ 


i 


HISTORY  OF  COOKING  UTENSILS         209 

Other  records  show  cakes  being  baked  on  a  stone 
slab  raised  a  little  from  the  ground  and  covered  with 
several  layers  of  small  coals,  on  top  of  which  the  cakes 

are  baking. 

A  very  curious  oven,  in  which  the  fire  is  built  inside 
and  the  bread  baked  on  the  outside,  is  shown  in  an- 
other picture. 

Ancient  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  records  also  show 
very  interesting  details  of  cooking  processes. 

From  Ancient  Greece  there  come  also  other  interest- 
ing pictures.  Figure  1 1  shows  a  Greek  baker  sitting 
with  a  slab  of  stone  in  front  of  him,  which  he  has 
used  as  a  kneading  board.  He  is  placing  the  cakes  or 
bread  over  a  gridiron.  This  is  the  earliest  picture  of 
a  broiler  of  this  type. 

The  Next  Step  in  Utensils 

These  crude  utensils  were  used  for  a  long  time  dur- 
ing the  ages  when  man  was  little  more  than  a  savage. 
But  as  he  developed  skill  in  working  different  mate- 
rials, he  applied  his  knowledge  to  making  cooking  ves- 

sels. 

One  of  the  very  earliest  discoveries  was  the  way  to 
make  bronze,  which  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin. 
This  alloy  was  so  widely  used  and  for  so  long  a  time 
that  a  whole  epoch  of  ancient  history  is  known  as  the 
Bronze  Age.  This  material  was  long  used  for  cook- 
ing utensils. 


!  i 


I  J. 


1; 
'I 

i 


M  : 


2IO       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


Copyright,  National  Biscuit  Co. 

Figure  ii.    Ancient  Greek  Cooking  Food  over  a  Gridiron 

The  making  of  pottery  was  another  early  discovery. 
Utensils  of  this  material  are  found  in  almost  every 
place  where  the  ruins  of  ancient  civilization  have  been 
discovered. 

Cooking  Over  the  Open  Fire 

For  centuries  the  method  of  cooking  was  over  the 
open  fire.  Even  after  houses  were  built,  the  open  fire- 
place was  used  for  cooking  as  well  as  heating.  The 
shape  of  utensils  was  adapted  to  this  use  and  there- 
fore remained  about  the  same  for  many  years.  All 
utensils  used  over  the  open  coals  were  provided  with 


HISTORY  OF  COOKING  UTENSILS 


211 


legs  to  lift  them  from  the  coals,  and  long  handles  with 
which  to  manipulate  them.  The  huge  iron  pots,  de- 
signed to  hold  large  quantities  of  meat  and  food  which 
could  be  left  cooking  for  a  long  time,  weighed  some- 
times  30  or  40  pounds.  They  were  suspended  from 
wooden  poles,  and  later  from  iron  cranes,  by  pot  hooks 
of  different  lengths,  to  regulate  the  distance  from  the 
fire  The  shape  of  these  pots  was  that  of  a  deep  globe 
with  a  flaring  rim  at  the  top  to  keep  out  the  smoke  and 

flames.  .        ,     ^  v     « 

An  inventory  of  household  belongings  kept  by  a 
colonial  dame  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  lists  among  the  pos- 
sessions: "2  brasse  skillets,  i  ladle,  i  mortar  all  of 
brasse.  i  brasse  pot,  2  small  pewter  dishes,  porn^ers^ 
stewpan.  wooden  cups  and  platter,  trenchers,  drmkmg 
horns,  firkins,  cowls,  and  powdermg  tubs. 

This  list  names  many  articles  which  are  not  used 
today,  and  shows  the  development  in  the  art  and  prac- 
tice of  house  furnishing. 

The  Introduction  of  the  Stove 

A  creat  change  took  place  in  the  shape  and  size  of 
utensHs  when  the  stove  was  substituted  for  the  open 
fire  The  size  was  materially  reduced,  because  it  was 
impossible  to  construct  stoves  large  enough  to  accom- 
modate the  huge  kettles  used  over  the  open  fire. 

It  was  not  until  1798  that  the  first  cook  stove  was 
used  in  this  country,  although  stoves  for  heatmg  pur- 


Ji 


212        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

poses  only  had  been  made  in  Alsace  as  early  as  1490. 
Benjamin  Franklin  invented  the  famous  Franklin 
stove  and  printed  a  pamphlet  on  his  own  press  showing 
how  wasteful  it  was  to  use  whole  logs  for  fuel.  The 
fuel  for  the  early  stoves  was  wood. 

By  1850  coal  ranges  were  manufactured  for  general 
cooking  purposes,  and  for  half  a  century  they  held 
sway.  But  there  came  a  time  not  many  years  ago 
when  the  price  of  coal  began  to  rise,  and  the  gas  range 
was  found  to  be  cleaner,  as  it  was  free  from  dust  and 
ashes,  economical  of  fuel  and  time,  and  altogether 
more  desirable  for  family  use. 

Gas  ranges  are  a  comparatively  recent  invention. 
They  were  first  used  where  a  supply  of  natural  gas  was 
found.     As  was  the  case  with  other  changes  in  fuel, 
the  use  of  gas  has  changed  the  shape  of  the  utensils 
employed.     The  flame  of  a  gas  stove  is  very  intense 
and  is  on  the  surface  of  the  range  instead  of  being  in 
a  fire-box.     Therefore  the  utensils  must  be  shallower. 
The  use  of  electricity  in  cooking  is  still  for  most 
people  limited  to  a  few  accessories,  such  as  percolators, 
broilers,  toasters,  etc.,  because  of  the  cost  of  the  cur- 
rent, and  because  the  best  of  nickel  and  copper  are  re- 
quired for  material  and  highly  skilled  labor  for  the 
manufacture,  thus  bringing  up  the  cost. 

Influence  of  Machinery 
The  introduction  of  machinery  has  influenced  the 


HISTORY  OF  COOKING  UTENSILS 


213 


manufacture  of  kitchenware,  as  it  has  that  of  all 
products.  The  perfection  of  dies  (see  Chapter  II) 
made  possible  the  manufacture  of  all  sheet  metal  uten- 
sils, and  brought  their  cost  within  limits.  Before  this, 
utensils  had  to  be  hammered  and  soldered  into  shape. 
The  French  were  the  first  to  apply  the  punch  and  press 
to  the  manufacture  of  kitchenware. 


Chapter  XXI 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  SALESPEOPLE 

Arrangement,  Display,  and  Care  of  Stock 

A  department  containing  such  a  multiplicity  of  ar- 
ticles as  the  Housefurnishings  Department  needs  care- 
ful study  in  order  that  the  arrangement  may  bring 
out  the  best  features  of  the  individual  articles,  as  well 
as  present  an  attractive  whole.  The  individual  sales- 
person is  often  not  responsible  for  the  appearance  of 
the  entire  display,  but  the  displays  on  the  separate 
tables  are  largely  at  her  disposal. 

An  artistic  arrangement  is  not  so  much  to  be  striven 
for  as  one  which  will  be  valuable  in  suggesting  articles 
to  the  customer.  A  display  of  the  different  utensils 
for  the  same  use,  or  of  different  utensils  needed  for 
completing  a  certain  piece  of  work,  will  often  jog  the 
customer's  memory. 

For  instance,  an  interesting  display  may  be  made  of 
the  different  utensils  needed  in  making  pastry,  or  in 
the  summer  and  fall  months  for  canning  and  preserv- 
ing fruits  and  vegetables.     During  the  spring  and  fall 

housecleaning     periods,     displays     of     long-handled 

214 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  SALESPEOPLE 


215 


brushes,  dusters,  cleaning  cloths,  and  other  cleaning 
implements  are  sure  to  attract  attention. 

When  a  customer  comes  into  the  department  with  a 
definite  idea  of  some  one  article  which  she  wishes  to 
purchase,  such  arrangements  as  those  described  often 
result  in  the  sale  of  many  additional  things  that  she 
may  not  have  thought  of  at  all. 

Caution  is  needed,  though,  not  to  urge  the  customer 
too  much,  nor  to  induce  her  to  buy  more  than  she  can 
use  —  say,  a  number  of  similar  dishes  when  one  or 
two  would  fill  her  requirements.  Such  overselling  is 
likely  to  cause  dissatisfaction  with  the  store  and  with 
the  salesperson. 

As  in  other  departments,  new  devices,  especially 
labor-saving  ones,  should  be  kept  to  the  fore,  so  that 
there  will  be  less  danger  of  dead  stock. 

It  is  also  very  important  that  the  stock  be  orderly 
and  clean.  Straight  piles  of  shining  pans,  and  long 
even  rows  of  kettles  are  attractive,  while  disarray  re- 
pels. Customers  have  grown  particular  in  this  re- 
spect and  quickly  notice  untidy  and  carelessly  kept 
stock,  since  courses  in  domestic  science,  given  in  recent 
years,  all  lay  stress  on  orderliness  and  sanitation. 

Knowledge  of  Goods 

As  has  been  reiterated  throughout  this  book,  the  es- 
sential of  successful  salesmanship  is  a  knowledge  of 
the  goods  in  the  department.     Every  chapter  has  been 


2l6        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

written  with  a  purpose  —  to  furnish  the  salesperson 
with  definite,  specific  information  upon  her  merchan- 
dise. These  facts  are  often  called  "  talking  points," 
or  "  selling  points." 

In  connection  with  each  material  and  kind  of  mer- 
chandise, suggestions  have  been  made  which  should 
make  a  saleswoman  intelligent  about  that  subject  and 
give  her  a  confidence  in  her  own  judgment  which  will 
make  her  opinion  valuable  to  the  customer. 

She  should  not  become  so  partial  to  certain  kinds  of 
utensils  that  she  cannot  think  of  her  customer's  prob- 
lem, but  rather  place  before  her  the  advantage  of  each 
article  and  its  value  for  the  particular  household  and 
pocketbook  under  consideration. 

If  a  saleswoman  has  a  real  love  of  efficient  house- 
keeping she  cannot  help  doing  good  work  in  the  House- 
furnishings  Department. 


Chapter  XXII 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  CUSTOMERS 


ft 


The  Necessity  for  Information  Concerning  Household 
Articles 

The  chapters  in  this  book  have  been  addressed  to 
those  who  sell  house  furnishings,  but  they  are  of  equal 
if  not  greater  importance  to  the  housekeeper  who  will 
use  the  articles. 

Housekeeping  is  both  a  science  and  an  art  and  it  is 
highly  unfortunate  that  so  many  women  begin  such 
important  work  with  a  scrappy  and  inadequate  knowl- 
edge of  its  essential  principles  and  of  the  tools  which 
are  necessary  for  its  successful  accomplishment. 

Many  women  buy  their  housefurnishings  in  a  blind 
way  ''because  Mother  used  that  kind,"  or  because  a 
friend  has  suggested  certain  utensils,  or  because  they 
look  attractive.  Mother  may  have  been  a  most  efficient 
housekeeper  but  there  have  been  many  recent  inventions 
which  she  may  not  know  about.  The  use  of  gas  and 
electricity  has  changed  conditions  and  the  modern 
knowledge  of  hygiene  makes  new  demands  on  the 
housekeeper. 

217 


:i\ 


21 8         HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 


Knowledge  of  Individual  Needs 

Every  woman  should  know  what  are  her  particular 
needs  in  the  way  of  cooking  utensils,  laundry  and  clean- 
ing equipment,  and  small  household  requirements. 
The  chapter  on  selection  of  an  equipment  will  be  of 
service  here  because  it  has  been  compiled  by  expert 
and  experienced  housekeepers.  But  even  here  a  young 
housekeeper  may  begin  with  only  half  or  less  than 
half  of  the  suggested  articles,  adding  to  them  as  she 
finds  that  the  necessity  arises. 

Knowledge  of  Sizes  and  Shapes  of  Articles 

The  suggestions  as  to  shapes,  lips,  handles,  and  other 
details  should  be  given  close  attention,  as  such  trifles 
make  a  great  difference  in  comfort  and  sometimes  in 
efficiency. 

Knowledge  of  Time-Saving  and  Labor-Saving  Devices 

Many  women  refuse  to  try  new  inventions  intended 
to  save  time  and  labor  because  they  do  not  realize  how 
much  time  is  consumed  in  washing  and  drying  dishes, 
preparing  food,  and  other  details  of  housekeeping. 
Every  labor-saving  invention  has  had  to  win  its  way 
slowly  against  the  prejudices  of  conservative  women. 
Some  attempts  at  saving  labor  make  more  work  in  the 
end,  but  every  woman  should  remember  that  the  few 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  CUSTOMERS 


219 


minutes  saved  several  times  a  day  make  a  great  differ- 
ence when  added  together. 

Knowledge  of  Cost-Reducing  Appliances 

Fuel-saving  has  become  increasingly  important  as 
the  cost  of  fuel  has  gone  up.  In  addition  to  having 
the  right  kind  of  stove  and  burner,  if  one  uses  gas, 
there  is  a  great  difference  in  the  amount  of  fuel  required 
for  heating  different  materials  in  cooking  utensils.  The 
fireless  cooker  and  other  devices  for  conserving  heat 
should  be  made  use  of  and  each  utensil  considered 
according  to  its  heat  requirements. 

The  material  and  construction  of  utensils  should  be 
studied  from  the  viewpoint  of  durability.  For  some 
uses  and  in  some  hands  an  inexpensive  article  will  "do 
just  as  well."  Each  housekeeper  must  judge  for  her- 
self what  she  can  afford  to  get  in  more  expensive  but 
lasting  form  and  what  may  be  purchased  at  the  lowest 
price.  A  good  motto  is  "never  get  anything  which  will 
be  too  good  to  throw  away  but  not  good  enough  for 
the  purpose."  Sometimes  one  must  fill  in  temporarily 
with  cheaper  articles  but,  if  so,  try  to  get  those  that 
will  serve  the  emergency  at  the  lowest  possible  cost. 

Maintaining  a  Satisfactory  Equipment 

Every  housekeeper  should  use  all  the  judgment  and 
carefulness  of  which  she  is  possessed  in  the  selection 


< 


*: 


220        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

of  her  ''tools."  She  should  keep  them  in  good  con- 
dition and  replace  broken  or  worn  out  articles  promptly. 
She  should  be  on  the  watch  for  improvements  and 
useful  inventions  and  try  them  out  before  condemning 
"fads."  Upon  the  smoothness  and  ease  with  which 
the  household  machinery  runs  depends  much  of  the 
happiness  of  the  home. 


) 


Chapter  XXIII 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK  OF  A  TYPICAL 
HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

Divisions 

A.  Utensils  for  Cooking  Foods 

B.  Utensils  for  Preparing  Foods 

C.  Equipment  for  the  Sink 

D.  Laundry  Articles 

E.  Equipment  for  Cleaning 

F.  Special  Articles 

A  —  Utensils  for  Cooking 

I.  Broiling,  Baking,  Roasting 

(a)  Articles 

Wire  Broilers 
Gridirons 
Toasters 
Roasting  Pans 

Self-Basting 

Drip  or  Baking 
Dutch  Ovens 
Bread  Pans 
Cake  Pans 

Loaf 

Layer 

Angel  or  Tubed 

Muffin 

221 


Wi' 


222        HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

Cake  Coolers 
Patty  Pans 
Pie  Plates 
Pudding  Pans 
Deep  Baking  Dishes 
Bean  Pots 
Casseroles 
Ramekins 

(b)  Materials 

Enameled  Ware 

Aluminum 

Tinned  Ware 

Earthenware 

Glassware 

Iron 

Wire 

2.  Boiling,  Stewing,  Steaming,  Braising 

(a)  Articles 
Kettles 

Tea 

Preserving 

Berlin 

Windsor 

Fish 
Stewpans 
Saucepans 

Berlin 

Windsor 

Double  and  Triple 
Teapots 
Coffee-pots 
Coffee  Percolators 
Double  Boilers 
Asparagus  Boilers 
Com  Boilers 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK 


223 


B 


Ham  Boilers 
Ladles,  Dippers 
Steamers 
Steam  Cookers 
Poachers 
Pot  Covers 
Tea  Balls 

(b)  Materials 

Aluminum 
Enameled  Ware 
Tinned  Ware 
Iron 
Nickeled  Ware 

3.  Sauteing,  Frying 

(a)  Articles 

Frying  Pans 
Skillets,  Spiders 
Frying  Kettles 
Frying  Baskets 
Griddles 

Chop  or  Steak  Covers 
Cake  Turners 
Waffle  Irons 
Omelet  Pans 

(b)  Materials 

Iron 

Aluminum 

Soapstone 

Enameled  Ware 

Tin 

Wire 

Utensils  for  Preparing  Foods 

I.  Chopping,  Cutting,  Grinding 

(a)  Articles 

Food  Choppers 


224 


HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

Chopping  Knives  and  Trays 

Coffee  Mills 

Cutlery 

Apple  Corers 

Apple  Parers 

Fruit  and  Vegetable  Slicers 

Graters 

Can  Openers 

Biscuit  Cutters 

Knife  Sharpeners 

Ice  CHippers 

(b)  Materials 

Iron  and  Steel 
Tinned  Ware 
Wood 

2.  Stirring,  Beating,  Pressing,  Rolling 

(a)  Articles 

Spoons,  Forks 

Egg  Beaters 

Mayonnaise  Beaters 

Cream  Whippers 

Bread  and  Cake  Mixers 

Lemon  Squeezers 

Potato  Mashers 

Fruit  Presses 

Bread,  Meat,  and  Cake  Boards 

Rolling  Pins 

Butter  Paddles  and  Molds 

Cake  Turners 

(b)  Materials 

Wood 
Glassware 
Marble 
Iron 
Tinned  Ware 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK 

Aluminum 
Wire 

3.  Separating,  Straining 

(a)  Articles 

Colanders,  Strainers,  Sieves 

Egg  Separators 

Funnels 

(b)  Materials 

Enameled  Ware 
Tinned  Ware 
Alumintmi 
Wire 

4.  Measuring 

(a)  Articles 

Spoons 

Cups 

Measures 

Scales 

Scoops 

(b)  Materials 

Iron,  Steel 
Tinned  Ware 
Aluminum 
Glass 

5.  Containers 

(a)  Articles 
Bowls 
Jars 
Pitchers 
Cups 
Plates 
Platters 
Boxes 


225 


226       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

Cans 

Bread  Raisers 

Molds 

Buckets,  Pails 

Trays 

Dinner  Pails 

(b)   Materials 

Earthenware 

Glassware 

Wood 

Tinned  and  Japanned  Ware 

Enameled  Ware 

C  —  Equipment  for  the  Sink 

1.  Articles 

Dishpans 

Rinsing  Pans 

Draining  Pans 

Wash  Basins 

Soap  Dishes 

Soap  Shakers 

Dish  Mops,  Dish  Cloths,  and  Pot 

Cleaners 
Plate  Scrapers 
Sink  Strainers 
Sink  Brushes  and  Shovels 

2.  Materials 

Tinned  Ware 

Galvanized  Ware 

Enameled  Ware 

Fiber 

Cotton 

Copper 

Wire 

Wood 

Rubber 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK 


227 


D  —  Laundry  Articles 
I.  For  Washing 

(a)  Articles 

Boilers 
Washboards 

Tubs 

Clothes  Washers 

Clothes  Wringers 

Qothes  Lifters 

Clothes-pins 

Clothes  Baskets  and  Hampers 

Clothes  Lines 

(b)  Materials 

Wood 

Galvanized  Iron 

Glassware 

Tinned  Ware 

Fiber 

Rubber 

Iron,  Steel 

Copper 

Hemp 

Cotton 

Rattan 

Wood 

2.  For  Ironing 
(a)  Articles 

Flatirons 
Tables 
Boards 

Ironing  Stands 
Iron  Heaters 
Clothes  Horses 
Curtain  Stretchers 


Ill 


228       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

(b)  Materials 

Iron  and  Steel 

Nickel 

Wood 

E  —  Equipment  for  Cleaning,  Etc. 
I.  Articles 

Floor  Brooms 
Whisk  Brooms 
Mops 
Wet 

Mop  Wringers 

Pails 

Dust-pans 

Brushes     (See  Chapter  XI) 

Carpet-Sweepers 

Carpet-Beaters 

Dusters 

Cleaning  Cloths 

Chamois 

Feather  Dusters 

Steel  Wool 

Scouring,  Qeaning,  and  Polishing  Materials 

Ash  Cans 

Garbage  Cans 

Ash  Sifters 

Coal  Hods 

Coal  Shovels 

Crumb  Pans 

Oil  Cans 

Watering  Pots 

Bedroom  Accessories 

Wash  Bowls  and  Pitchers 

Toilet  Stands 

Slop  Pails 

Chambers 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK 


229 


Candlesticks 
Bathroom  Accessories 
Foot  Tubs 
Baby  Baths 

2.  Materials 

Broom  Com 

Wood 

Vegetable  Fiber 

Cotton 

Rattan 

Leather 

Iron 

Galvanized  Ware 

Japanned  Ware 

Enameled  Ware 

F  —  Special  Articles 
I.  Refrigerators 

(a)  Kinds 

Side-icing 
Top-icing 
Ice  Chests 

(b)  Materials 

Wood 

Porcelain 

Steel 

Galvanized  Steel 

Enameled  Steel 

Glass 

Brass 

2.  Ice-Cream  Freezers 

(a)  Kinds 

With  Crank 
Single  Action 
Double  Action 
Crankless 


'I  t 


i! 


I 


f#l 


230       HOUSEFURNISHINGS  DEPARTMENT 

(b)   Materials 
Wood 

Galvanized  Steel 
Tinned  Ware 

3.  Fireless  Cookers 

(a)  Materials 
Wood 
Steel 

Aluminum 
Soapstone 
Mineral  Wool 
Cork 
Asbestos 
Excelsior 

4.  Kitchen  Tables 

(a)  Materials 
Wood 
Porcelain 
Zinc 
Glass 
Marble 

5.  Baskets 

(a)  Styles 

Laundry  Baskets 
Hampers 
Market  Baskets 
Scrap  Baskets 
Fireside  Baskets 
Lunch  Baskets 

(b)  Materials 

Splints 

Reed  or  Rattan 

Bamboo 

Vulcanized  Fiber 


Appendix 

Books  for  Reference 

The  New  Housekeeping,  C.  Frederick.     Doubleday,  Page. 
The  Efficient  Kitchen,  G.  B.  Child.     McBride,  Nast  &  Co. 
Home  Economics,  M.  Parloa.     Century. 
Foods  and  Household  Management,  Kinne  and  Cooley.    Mac- 

millan.  .     ^    ^^      .  ^        n 

Choice  and  Care  of  Utensils,  Ida  S.  Harrington.    Cornell 
Reading   Courses,   Cornell   University.     (Free  to  resi- 
dents of  New  York  State.)  ,     .    ,,  t      j 
Housekeeper's   Handbook  of   Cleaning,   Sarah  J.   McLeod. 

Harper.  ^    ^,       t^  t»    x 

A   Guide  to  Laundry  Work,  Mary  D.   Chambers.    Boston 

Cooking  School  Magazine  Co.         ,       ^  ,,       „ 
Chemistry  of  Common  Things,  Brownlee,  Fuller,  Hancock, 

Whitsit.     Allyn  &  Bacon. 
Household  Physics,  C.  J.  Lynde.     Macmillan. 
Lumber  and  Its  Uses,  R.  S.  Kellogg.    Radford  Architectural 

Co.,  Chicago. 
Dies,  Their  Construction  and  Use,  Woodworth.     Norman  W. 

Henley  Publishing  Co. 
American  Journal  of  Home  Economics. 
Good  Housekeeping  Magazine. 
House  furnishing  Review. 
Wear-Ever  Magazine. 
Wooden  and  Willow  Ware  Trade  Review. 
Crockery  and  Glass  Journal. 
Pottery,  Glass  and  Brass  Salesman, 
Wood  Worker. 
Brooms,  Brushes  and  Handles. 


iti 


231 


INDEX 


Acids,  Effect  on, 

aluminum,  51 

enamel,  34 

galvanized  ware,  43,  43 

glass.  76 

tinned  ware,  39 
Agate  Ware,  32 
Alcohol  Irons,  141 
Alkalies,     Caustic,     Effect 

ALUMiNinf,  51 
Aluminum,  Pure. 

occtirrence,  47 

process  of  obtaining,  47 
Aluminum  Ware, 

as  a  conductor  of  heat,  45 

attractiveness,  44 

care  of,  50 

casting,  48 

dip  finish,  50 

durability,  45 

economy,  45 

effect  of  caustic  alkalies  on,  5Z 

electric  finish,  50 

finishes,  50 

high  melting  point,  51 

history,  52 

lightness,  45 

line  finish,  50 

methods  of  cleaning,  51 

natural  finish,  50 

polishing  and  finishing,  49 

satin  or  scratch  brush  finish,  50 

stamping,  49 

U.  S.  government  use,  52 

varieties,  48 


Angel-Cake  or  Tubed  Cake  Pans 

89 
Apple  Corers,  37,  107.  i9S 
Asbestos.  174 
Ash  Cans,  132 
Ash  Wood,  58,  is6 
Asparagus  Boilers.  27. 94 


B 


on      Baking, 

dishes,  28,  72.  75.  87,  I93 

pans  (See  "Pans.  Baking") 

principles  of.  82,  84,  86 
Bamboo.  187 
Baskets, 

frying,  40,  103,  I94 

hami)ers,  185 

history,  189 

laundry.  137.  184 

lunch.  i8s 

making.  187 

market.  185 

materials.  186 

varieties.  184 

vulcanized  fiber.  188 

waste,  1 8s 
Basswood,  58 
Batch  (See  "Enamel") 
Bath  or  Bristol  Bricks.  130 
Bean  Pots,  72,  87,  i93 
Beech  Wood,  59 
Bell  and  Hopper,  6 
Berlin  Kettles,  93 
Berlin  Saucepans,  95 
Bessemer,  Henry,  13 
Bessemer  Steel  Process,  13 


(    ; 


233 


^ 


234 


INDEX 


Birch  Wood,  S9 

Biscuit  Cutters,  37,  195 

Blanks  (See  "Dies") 

Blast  Furnace  (  See  "Iron") 

Block  Tin,  38 

Boilers, 

asparagus,  27,  94 

clothes,  37,  138 

double,  27,  37.  100,  194 
Boiling, 

principles  of,  90 

utensils,  92 
Bosh,  Blast  Furnace,  6 
Bosom  or  Shirt  Boards,  143 
Bowls,  28,  72,  118,  196 
Box  Irons,  140 
Boxes,  28,  118 
Braising, 

principles  of,  82,  98 

utensils,  98 
Bread  and  Cake  Mixers,  37.  m. 

195 
Bread,   Meat,  and  Cake  Boards, 

S3,  no.  195 
Bread  Pans  (See  "Pans,  Bread") 
Bread  Raisers,  28,  118 
Broilers,  40,  83. 193 
Broiling, 

principles  of,  82 

utensils  for,  83 
Brooms, 

care  of,  134 

grades  of  com,  123 

handles,  123 

manufacture,  133 

materials,  122 

sources  of  broom  com,  122 

varieties,  122 
Brushes, 

backs.  126 

drying  and  care,  126 

food,  125 

furniture  and  clothing,  laj 

manufacturing  centers,  126 


Brushes — Continued 

materials,  125 

metal  surfaces,  125 

porcelain  and  glass,  125 

wood,  125 
Buckets,  52,  121 

covered,  28 
Butter  Paddles,  53.  ii4.  i9S 


Caffeine,  97 
Cake  Pans,  88, 193 
Cake  Turners,  104,  194 
Cans, 
ash,  133 

garbage, 133 

preserve,  118 
Casseroles,  72,  89.  98,  193 
Cast  Iron  (See  "Iron") 
Cast  Iron  Ware  (See  "Iron  Cast") 
Cementation  Furnace,  14 
Chamber  Pails,  28,  132 
Chopping  Bowls,  53.  168,  195 
Cleaning  and  Scouring  Materials 

Powders,  and  Pastes,  129 
Cleaning  Materials,  i29-i3a 

silver  cleaners,  131 

stove  blacking,  131 
Cleaning    Utensils       (Sec       also 
"Brooms,"  "Brushes,"  "Mops," 
"Cleaning  Materials") 

articles,  123 

brooms,  122 

bmshes,  124 

carpet -beaters,  129 

carpet-sweepers,  128 

dust  pans.  128 

dusters,  128 

mops,  127 

pails  and  buckets,  133 
Clothes  Baskets,  138,  184 
Clothes  Horses,  54 


INDEX 


235 


Clothes  Lines,  139 
Clothes  Pins,  53.  59.  I39 
Clothes  Washers,  136 
Coal  Ranges,  213 

Coated     Ware,     4.     18     (See  also 
"Enameled  Ware,"  "Galvanized 
Ware,"       "Japanned       Ware'," 
"Tinned  Ware") 
Coffee, 97 
Coffee  Mills,  108 
Coffee  Percolators,  93,  96 

styles,  97 
Coffee-Pots,  27,  37, 92, 96, 194 

coffee  making,  97 

drip  or  biggin,  96 

percolators,  92,  96 
Colanders,  28,  37,  114,  X95 
Containers,  41,  75 
Cooking, 

baking,  86 

boiling,  82,  90 

braising,  82 

broiling,  83 

Egyptian  illustration,  208 

elementary,  83 

fats,  loi 

frying,  82 

Greek  illustration,  210 

primitive,  206 

roasting  and  bakinS,  83 

steaming,  83 

stewing,  83 
Cooking  Utensils, 

baking,  87 

boiling,  93 

braising,  98 

broiling,  83 

cleaning,  78 

comparison  of  materials  used,  77 

durability,  80 

essentials,  77 

frying,  100 

fuel  economy,  78 

roasting,  8$ 


Cooking  Utensils— Coii/»fiit«i 

safety,  77 

steaming,  99 
CoRERS,  Apple,  37 
Cork. 174 
Cottonwood,  59 
Covers,  93,  93.  95.  303 

steak  or  chop,  103 
Cream  Whippers,  75.  "o,  in,  19S 
Crockery  (See  "Earthenware") 
Cupola  Furnace,  9 
Ctjps, 

measuring,  115.  "7 
Cups  and  Saucers,  28, 118 
Curtain  Stretchers,  54,  143 
Cuspidors,  28 
Cutters,  Biscuit,  Doughnut,  and 

Cooky,  109 
Cypress  Wood,  60 


Department,     Arrangement     and 
Layout,  i 

DiATOMACEOUS  EaRTH,  I30 

Dies,  for  Metal  Utensils,  18-26 

bending  and  forming,  19 

blanking,  19 

blanks  of  kitchen  utensils,  illustra- 
tions, 20-21 

curling,  wiring,  and   seaming,  I9t 
33 

cutting,  19 

drawing  of,  19.  33.  34 

punching  and  drawing,  33 
push-through,  33 
triple  acting,  33 

kinds,  18 

metal  drawing,  34 

perforating,  19.  32 

seaming,  22 
Dinner  Pails,  28 
Dippers,  28,  37.  95 


236 


INDEX 


DiSHPANS.  38.  37«  14s.  197 

Dover  Egg  Bbatbrs.  hi 
DowBLs,  65 

DowNcoMKR,  Blast  Furnace,  7 
Drain  Pans,  28,  37.  146,  i97 
Dutch  Ovbns,  s.  99 


B 


Earthenware, 

articles,  72 

baking  or  firing,  73 

biscuit  stage,  73 

characteristics,  7' 

glazing,  74 

history,  74 

materials,  72 

varieties  of  pottery,  71 
Egg  Beaters,  ho,  iqs 
Egg  Poachers,  100, 194 
Egg  Separators,  37t  "S,  196 
Electric  Finish,  Aluminx/m,  so 
Electric  Furnaces,  is 
Electric  Irons,  141 
Electro-Silicon,  130 
Enamel. 

composition,  29 

grinding,  29 

mixing  and  melting  materials,  29 
Enameled  Ware, 

advantages  of  single-coated   ware, 

31 
application    of  enamel    to   article, 

31 
care  of,  33 
composition,  aS 
finishing.  32 
fusing,  32 
history.  34 
popularity,  27 

preparation  of  foundation,  30 
production  in  U.  S..  34 
varieties,  27t  32 
Excelsior,  174 


Fats  and  Oils  for  Frying,  ioi 
Fiber  Baskets,  Vulcanubd,  188 
FiRELEss  Cookers, 
advantages,  177 
care  of,  178 
cases,  173 

cooking  vessels,  I75 
insulation,  173 
methods  of  working,  176 
parts,  173 
poptdarity,  171 
primitive,  172 
principle  of,  171 
radiators,  174 
suggestions  for  using.  176 
Fish  Kettles,  94 
Flour  Sifters.  ii4i  i95 
Flxtx,  7 

Food  Preparation, 
containers,  118 
implements, 
chopping,  106 
cutting,  106,  109 
grinding,  106,  107 
measuring,  iis 
pressing,  109, 112 
rolling.  X09,  114 
stirring  and  beating,  I09t  "O 
straining  and  separating,  114 
weights  and  measures  tables,  1x7 
Freezers,  Ice  Cream,  163 
crankless,  i6s 
directions,  167 
principles.  166 
varieties,  163 
Frenchwarb,  39 
Fruit, 
jars,  75 
presses,  1x3 
Frying, 

baskets,  40,  103,  194 
fats  and  oils,  loi 


INDEX 


237 


Frying — Continued 

kettles,  S.  102,  194 

pans,  5,  27,  103,  194 

principles  of ,  100 

sauteing,  description  of  utensils,  102 
Funnels,  28,  37.  "S,  i9S 
Fu&NAC£S,  ELSCTRIC,  IS 


Galvanized      Iron      (See      "Iron, 

Galvanized  ") 
Galvanized  Ware,  4,  36,  43 

care  of,  43 
Garbage  Cans,  133 
Gas  Ranges,  Date,  212 
Glassware     (See      also     Glassware 
Manual) 

articles,  75 

manufacture,  75 

merits,  76 
Gluing,  Rules  for,  66 
Granite  Ware,  33 
Graters,  37. 107, 109,  i94 


Ham  Boilers,  s,  27,  94 
Hampers,  i8s 
Handles, 

bail,  92,  93,  I03.  201 

brooms  and  whisks,  123 

projecting,  94,  95,  103,  201 

wood,  97 1  201 
Hearth  of  Blast  Furnace,  6 
Hickory  Wood,  60 
Horse,  Clothes,  54 
Housefurnishings, 

according  to  manner  of  living,  190 

according  to  size  of  family,  190,  I92 

bride's  outfit,  192 

construction,  199 

durability,  80 

ease  of  cleaning,  78,  203 


Housefurnishings — Continued 
fuel-saving  equipment,  78,  198 
lightest  outfit,  198 
safety,  78 
seconds,  191 
size  and  shape,  204 
standard  equipment,  I93 
time-aud-labor-saving     equipment, 

199 


Ice  Chests,  151 
Ice  ChiPPERS,  166,  i97 
Ice-Cream, 
freezers,  163 
history,  169 
varieties,  169 
Iceless  Refrigerators,  162 
Iron, 
cast, 

articles  made  of,  5 
care  of,  xi 
casting  process,  9 
characteristics,  10 
polishing,  xo 
galvanized, 

manufacturing,  43 
uses,  42,   X32,   X33,  X36-I39,  146, 
X48.    158 
manufacture,       4-26       (See      also 

"Steel") 
planished,  17 
tendency  to  rust,  18 
wrought,  4, 5 
puddling,  II 
rabble,  12 
Russia  iron,  S,  X7 
structure,  12 
Ironing  Boards,  S3 
Irons    (See    also    "Laundry    Equip- 
ment") 
alcohol,  14X 
box,  140 


Ml 


it 


238 


INDEX 


Irons — Continued 
electric,  141 
flouncing,  141 
fluting,  141 
gas,  gasoline,  141 
goffering,  141 
handles,  detachable,  140 
healers,  141 

nickel  and  steel  facing,  141 
polishing,  141 
puff,  141 
sad,  140 


Japanned  Ware,  36,  41.  "9 

grades  and  finishes,  42 
Jars,  28,  72,  118,  196 
Jelly  Glasses,  75 f  "8 
Joinery  (See  "Woodworking") 


Kettles,  27,  37,  93 
frying,  s,  102,  194 
preserving,  93 


Ladles,  28,  37,  95 

for  foundry,  8 
Laundry  Equipment, 

boilers,  copper,  37,  138 

clothes  baskets,  138,  184 

clothes  horses,  143 

clothes  lines,  139 

clothespins,  139 

curtain  stretchers,  54,  143 

ironing  boards,  142 

iron  stands.  14 z 

irons,  140 

tubs,  135 

washboard;'.,  134 

washers,  136 

wringers,  X36 


Lemon  Squeezers,  37.  75.  "O.  "2, 

195 
Lumber, 

drying,  57 

seasoning,  56 
Lunch  Baskets,  185 


Maple  Wood,  60 
Market  Baskets,  185 
Mayonnaise  Beaters,  iio,  19S 
Measuring  Utensils,    28.    37.    75. 

115.  117 
Meat, 

boiling  or  stewing,  90,  91 

broiling,  82 

frying  or  saut^ing,  loi 

roasting,  84 
Melting  Point  of  Metals,  80 
Metal  Drawing,  Process,  24 
Milk  Pans,  28 
Mineral  Wool,  174 
Molds.  118 
Mop  Frames,  127 
Mops, 

dry,  127 

handles,  127 

wet,  127 

wringers,  127 
Muffin  Pans,  5.  28,  88,  193 


N 


Nut  Bowls,  53 


Garwood,  61 

Omelet  Pans,  104,  194 

Opal  Glass,  159 

Open  Hearth  Process,  for  Steel, 

14 
Ovens,  s,  99 


INDEX 


239 


Pails,  28,  42. 132, 197 
Pans  (See  also  "Saucepans") 

baking,  28,  37.  87.  89.  I93 

bread,  5.  28,  37.  87.  I93 

cake,  87. 193 

drain,  28,  37.  146,  i97 

frying,  27,  103.  I94 

milk,  28 

muffin,  5.  28,  88,  193 

omelet,  104 

patty,  89 

refrigerator,  160 

roasting,  5.  28,  85,  193 
Patty  Pans,  89 
Pie  Plates,  28,  37.  87 
Pig  Iron, 8 
Pine  Wood,  61 
Pitchers,  28,  72, 118 
Plate  Scrapers,  147 
Plates, 

pie,  28,  37.  87,  193 
platters,  28,  118,  I97 
Planished  Iron,  17 
Polishing  Irons,  141 
Poplar  Tree  Wood,  61 
Pot  Cleaners,  147 
Potato  Mashers,  37.  "3.  i95 

Pottery  (See     "Earthenware"  and 
Pottery  Manual) 

Preserve  Cans  or  Jars,  118 

Preserving  Kettles,  93 

Pudding  Dishes,  28,  87 

Puff  Irons,  141 


Ramekins,  72,  87.  i93 

Ranges,  212 

Rattan  or  Reeds,  186 

Refrigeration,  Principles  of,  i49 


Refrigerators  , 

care  of,  160 

casings,  58,  61,  156 

circulation  of  air  currents,  151 

drip  pan,  160 

ice  chambers,  I57 

ice  chests,  151 

iceless,  162 

insulation,  I53 

placing  of  foods,  152 

provision  chambers,  varieties,  159 

shelves  and  trimmings,  IS9 

side-icing,  150 

top-icing,  150 

traps,  x6o 
Roasting, 

principles  of,  82,  84 

utensils,  85 
Roasting  Pans,  85. 98, 99.  i93 

self -basting,  85.  98 
Rolling  Pins,  53,  75.  "4.  i9S 
rottenstone,  13© 
Russia  Iron,  5.  i7 


s 


Sad  Irons,  140 
Salad  Sets,  S3 
Satin  or  Scratch  Brush,  50 
Saucepans,  27.  37,  94.  i94 
SAUTfiiNG  (See  "Frying") 
Scales,  Weighing,  116 
Scrapers,  Plate,  Cleaning,  147 
Sink  Implements, 

brushes  and  shovels,  148 

dishpans,  14S 

drain  pans,  14S,  146 

mops,  146 

pot  cleaners,  I47 

soap  dishes,  147 

strainers,  148 

wash  basins,  148 
Skirt  Boards,  for  Ironing,  142 
Sleeve  Boards,  for  Ironing,  14^ 


M 


240 


INDEX 


Soap  Dishes.  28,  37.  i47 

Soups,  91 

Spiegelbisbn,  14 

Splints  for  Making  Baskets,  186 

Spoons,  28,  37,  no,  19s 

Spruce  Wood,  62 

Spun  Ware,  40 

Steamers,  27.  37,  99.  100,  194 

Steaming, 

principles  of,  82 

utensils,  99 
Steel, 

in     housefumishings     department, 

4.  5.  12 

manufacture,  4-26 

wool,  SI.  132 
Stew  Pans,  94.  i94 
Stewing, 

principles  of,  91 

utensils  for,  92 
Stove  Blacking,  131 
Stoves,  History,  211 
Strainers,  28, 37. 114 


Tables,  Kitchen,  180 

care  of,  182 

frames,  181 

glass  tops,  181 

height  of  working  surfaces,  181 

marble  tops,  181 

porcelain  tops,  181 

wooden  tops,  181 

zinc  tops,  181 
Tea  Kettles,  27,  37,  92,  194 
Teapots,  27.  72,  97.  i94 
Tin  Kitchens,  86 
Tinned  and  Japanned  Ware.  4 
Tinned  Ware, 

block  tin,  38 

care  of,  38 

definition,  36 

effect  of  acids,  39 


Tinned  Ware — Continued 

history,  39 

manufacture,  37 

retinned,  38 

stock,  36 
Toasters,  40,  83.  I93 
Toasting,  83 
Tripoli,  130 
Tubs,  S4 


Utensils  (See  "Cooking  Utensils," 
"Food  Preparation,"  names  of 
separate  articles) 


Vegetable  Slicers,  109.  I95 

w 

Waffle  Irons,  104 
Wash  Basins,  28,  37.  148 
Wash  Boards,  S3.  i34.  196 
Waste  Baskets,  i8s 
Weighing  Scales,  116 
Whiting,  Cleaning  Material,  131 
Wicker  Ware,  186 
Willow  Ware,  186 
Windsor  Kettles,  93 
Wire  Drawing,  40 
Wire  Goods,  40 
Wire  Pot  Cleaners,  37 
Wood  (See  also  "Lumber,"  "Wood- 
working") 

ash.  58 

bass  wood,  58 

beech,  S9 

birch,  59 

Cottonwood,  59 

cypress.  60 

hickory.  60 

maple,  60 


INDEX 


241 


Wood — Continued 

oak,  61 

pine,  61 

poplar,  61 

spruce,  62 
Woodenware, 

care  of.  69 

finishiug,  63,  67 

gluing,  66 

joints,  63 

paints.  68 

physical  properties,  54 

shrinkage,  56 

stains,  67 

varnish,  68 


Woodworking, 
center  lathes.  63 
dovetailing,  64 
dowels,  6s 
finishing,  63 
foot  lathes.  63 
jointing.  64 
power  lathes.  63 
spindle,  mandrel  or  chuck  lathes, 

63 

turning,  62 
Wringers, 

clothes,  S3 

mops,  127 
Wrought  IronCScc  "Iron,  Wrought' ) 


Date  Due 

V? 

J. 

^^j>^ 

JUL  16 

949  '/krp 

■• 

^^^    ^w   ,,    u,. 

r 

1      II 

^  J 

91 

I 

D254.63 
Hutchinson 


H97 


House  furnishings •.., 


V0 


-^/fHo  w^sj  ^,r\:^. 


?fp  ■«p 


'^ 


O  A5f.<S3 


H97 


rhiH  ^^61 


NOV  1 81S94 


■."\(  i:» 


t93l 


END  OF 
TITLE 


